Özet
Studies that focus on the adaptation of international students to new socio-cultural environments have continued to increase as the global number of international students is also increasing. A huge number of these studies have mainly been done in the United States and Eastern European countries. However, due to increased demand in education, other countries in Asia and Europe have also received a huge number of international students in the recent past. Despite an increased focus on international students, there are fewer studies that have highlighted the adaptation of African students, especially of African origin. The present study aims at understanding the adaptation of African students enrolled in Turkey’s institutions of higher learning in Ankara. In order to the answer the research questions, this study uses a qualitative approach and interviews. Berry’s acculturation theory forms the basis of our theoretical framework. Berry’s acculturation theory and Hofstede’s dimensions of national culture provides the literature on various types of adaptation as well as outcomes of cultural interactions that are important in this study.
İn this study, cultural difference, language barrier, and religious differences are some of the main themes. The main finding is that language barrier is the main challenge in adaptation among all African students. İn addition, the main challenges African students encounter are more social and cultural but not economic.
Künye
Agbiji, O. M., & Swart, I. (2015). Religion and Social Transformation in Africa: A Critical and Appreciative Perspective. Scriptura, 114. https://doi.org/10.7833/114-0-1115
Allaberdiyev, P. (2007). Türk Cumhuriyetlerinden Türkiye`ye Yüksek Öğrenim Görmeye Gelen Öğrencilerin Uyum Düzeylerinin İncelenmesi. Gazi Üniversitesi, Ankara.
Amorim, L. (2001). Intercultural Learning: a few awareness tips for US and European fellows and host community foundations.
Azmaz, S. (1995). Orta Asya Cumhuriyetleri’nden Gelen Uludağ Üniversitesi’nde Öğrenim Gören Öğrencilerin Uyum Düzeylerini Etkileyen Bazı Etmenler. Uludağ Üniversitesi, Bursa.
Babiker, I. E., Cox, J. L., & Miller, P. M. (1980). The measurement of cultural distance and its relationship to medical consultations, symptomatology and examination performance of overseas students at Edinburgh University. Social Psychiatry, 15, 109–116. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00578141
Bagley, C., & Young, L. (1988). Evaluation of color and ethnicity in young children in Jamaica, Ghana, England, and Canada. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 12(1), 45–60. https://doi.org/10.1016/0147-1767(88)90006-5
Bank, A., & Bank, L. J. (2011). Inside African anthropology: Monica Wilson and her interpreters. Inside African Anthropology: Monica Wilson and Her Interpreters. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139333634
Berger, P. L., & Luckmann, T. (1966). The social construction of Reality. Penguin Group, 249. https://doi.org/10.2307/323448
Berry, J. W. (1980). Acculturation as varieties of Adaptation. In Acculturation: Theory, models and findings (pp. 9–25).
Berry, J. W. (1990). Psychology of Acculturation. In Cross-cultural Perspectives. Nebraska Symposium on Motivation (Vol. 37, pp. 201–234).
Berry, J. W. (1997). Immigration, acculturation, and adaptation. Applied Psychology, 46(1), 5–34. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1464-0597.1997.tb01087.x
Berry, J. W. (2006). Contexts of acculturation. The Cambridge Handbook of Acculturation Psychology, 27–42. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511489891.006
Berry, J. W., & Kim, U. (1988). Acculturation and mental health. In Health and cross-cultural psychology: Toward applications. Cross-cultural research and methodology series, Vol. 10. (pp. 207–236).
Berry, J. W., Phinney, J. S., Sam, D. L., & Vedder, P. (2006). Immigrant youth: Acculturation, identity, and adaptation. Applied Psychology, 55(3), 303–332. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1464-0597.2006.00256.x
Berry, J. W., & Sam, D. L. (1997). Acculturation and adaption. In Handbook of cross-cultural psychology, Vol. 3, Social behavior and applications (pp. 291–326).
Besirli, H. (2010). Food, Culture and Identity. MILLI FOLKLOR, (87), 159–169. Retrieved from http://ufl.summon.serialssolutions.com/2.0.0/link/0/eLvHCXMw3V3NS8MwFA-iIKKIn_UTehAv2pE0SZccPIhbnWxjqBuIF0maFAQdc9aD_71Jk61zeNjZY0pb2pfwfu_j994DAMc1GM3pBMyN0xYjwWleTxSUKGMaJVxIIbGGwpYSD1r1-zRJG6RVDReorv2HjU89icY1y3TZAV-O-yuF27V-_EXa67Q7vYo1qD9fx2_VJOtJQMC
Bhatia, S., & Ram, A. (2009). Theorizing identity in transnational and diaspora cultures: A critical approach to acculturation. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 33(2), 140–149. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2008.12.009
Black, J. S., & Mendenhall, M. (1991). The U-Curve Adjustment Hypothesis Revisited: A Review and Theoretical Framework. Journal of International Business Studies, 22(2), 225–247. https://doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8490301
Boafo-Arthur, S. (2014). Acculturative Experiences of Black-African International Students. International Journal for the Advancement of Counselling, 36(2), 115–124. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10447-013-9194-8
Bochner, S., McLeod, B. M., & Lin, A. (1977). Friendship patterns of overseas students: A functional model. International Journal of Psychology, 12(4), 277–294. https://doi.org/10.1080/00207597708247396
Çağlar, A. (1999). Türk Üniversitelerinde Öğrenim Gören Türk Cumhuriyetleri ve Akraba Toplulukları Öğrencilerinin Sorunları. TODAİE Amme İdaresi Dergisi, 32(4), 133–169.
Carruthers, J. (2004). Africa: Histories, ecologies and societies. Environment and History. https://doi.org/10.3197/0967340042772649
Carson, L. R. (2009). “I am because we are:” Collectivism as a foundational characteristic of African American college student identity and academic achievement. Social Psychology of Education, 12(3), 327–344. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11218-009-9090-6
Chen, C. P. (1999). Common Stressors Among International College Students: Research and Counseling Implications. Journal of College Counseling, 2(1), 49. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2161-1882.1999.tb00142.x
Cheryan, S., & Tsai, J. L. (2007). Ethnic Identity. Publication Status: Fully Published.
Collier, P. (2015). War, Guns And Votes: Democracy In Dangerous Places. IOSR Journal Of Humanities And Social Science (IOSR-JHSS), 20(5), 85–88. https://doi.org/10.9790/0837-20518588
Constantine, M. G., Anderson, G. M., Berkel, L. A., Caldwell, L. D., & Utsey, S. O. (2005). Examining the Cultural Adjustment Experiences of African International College Students: A Qualitative Analysis. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 52(1), 57–66. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0167.52.1.57
Constantine, M. G., & Sue, D. W. (2007). Perceptions of Racial Microaggressions Among Black Supervisees in Cross-Racial Dyads. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 54(2), 142–153. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0167.54.2.142
Cross, W. E. (1978). The Thomas and Cross Models of Psychological Nigrescence: A Review. Journal of Black Psychology, 5(1), 13–31. https://doi.org/10.1177/009579847800500102
Del Pilar, J. A., & Udasco, J. O. (2004a). Deculturation: Its Lack of Validity. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1037/1099-9809.10.2.169
Del Pilar, J. A., & Udasco, J. O. (2004b). Marginality Theory: The Lack of Construct Validity. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences. https://doi.org/10.1177/0739986303261813
Dorozhkin, I. N., & Mazitova, L. T. (2008). Problems of the Social Adaptation of Foreign College Students. Russian Education & Society, 50(2), 23–30. https://doi.org/10.2753/RES1060-9393500202
Dworkin, S. L., & Peacock, D. (2013). Changing Men in South Africa. Contexts, 12(4), 8–11. https://doi.org/10.1177/1536504213511209
Ercan, L. E. (1998). Yabancı Uyruklu ve Türk Üniversite Öğrencilerine Ait Sorunların Bazı Değişkenler Açısından İncelenmesi. Gazi Üniversitesi, Ankara.
Erikson, E. (1968). Youth: Identity and crisis. New York, NY: WW. https://doi.org/10.1002/yd.29
Francis Adelegan & Davıd Parks. (1985). Problems of transition for African students in an American university. Journal of College Student Personnel, 26(6), 504–508.
Gans, H. J. (1979). Symbolic ethnicity: The future of ethnic groups and cultures in America. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 2(1), 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1080/01419870.1979.9993248
Gephart, R. P. (2004). Qualitative research and the Academy of Management Journal. Academy of Management Journal. https://doi.org/10.5465/AMJ.2004.14438580
Göç Politika ve Projeleri Dairesi Başkanlığı. (2017). 2017 Göç Raporu. Ankara.
Goforth, A. N., Oka, E. R., Leong, F. T. L., & Denis, D. J. (2014). Acculturation, Acculturative Stress, Religiosity and Psychological Adjustment among Muslim Arab American Adolescents. Journal of Muslim Mental Health, 8(2). https://doi.org/10.3998/jmmh.10381607.0008.202
Gordon, M. (1964). Assimilation in American Life. In Oxford University Press (pp. 60–83).
Gu, Q. (2009). Maturity and Interculturality: Chinese students’ experiences in UK higher education. European Journal of Education, 44(1), 37–52. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1465-3435.2008.01369.x
Gu, Q., & Maley, A. (2008). Changing places: A study of Chinese students in the UK. In Language and Intercultural Communication (Vol. 8, pp. 224–245). https://doi.org/10.1080/14708470802303025
Hannerz, U. (1990). Cosmopolitans and Locals in World Culture. Theory, Culture & Society, 7(2), 237–251. https://doi.org/10.1177/026327690007002014
Hofstede, G. (1991). National Cultural Dimensions.
Http://www.pewforum.org. (2012). Religious Composition by Country, in Numbers. Retrieved from http://www.pewforum.org/2012/12/18/table-religious-composition-by-country-in-numbers/
Igboin, B. O. (2011). Colonialism and African cultural values. African Journal of History and Culture, 3(6), 96–103.
Inalcik, H., & Quataert, D. (1994). An economic and social history of the Ottoman Empire. Cambridge University Press.
John, W. B. (2013). Intercultural Relations In Plural Societies: Research Derived From Multiculturalism Policy. Acta de Investigación Psicológica, 3(2), 1122–1135. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2007-4719(13)70956-6
Kagan, H., & Cohen, jo. (1990). Cultural Adjustment of International Students. Psychological Science, 1(2), 133–137. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.1990.tb00082.x
Karaoğlu, F. (2007). Yabancı Uyruklu Öğrencilerde Uyma Davranışı: TÖMER Örneği. Gazi Üniversitesi, Ankara.
Khapoya, V. (2013). The African experience : an introduction. Upper Saddle River, N.J: Pearson.
Kim, Y. Y. (2001). Becoming Intercultural: An Integrative Theory of Communication and Cross-Cultural Adaptation. SAGE Publications, Inc.
Klein, M. A., & Rodney, W. (1974). How Europe Underdeveloped Africa. The International Journal of African Historical Studies, 7(2), 323. https://doi.org/10.2307/217137
Kuper, L., & Horowitz, D. L. (1986). Ethnic Groups in Conflict. Contemporary Sociology. https://doi.org/10.2307/2069338
Laroche, M., Kim, C., Hui, M. K., & Joy, A. (1996). An empirical study of multidimensional ethnic change: The case of the French Canadians in Quebec. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 27(1), 114–131. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022196271008
Lawler, S. (2005). Introduction: Class, Culture and Identity. Sociology, 39(5), 797–806. https://doi.org/10.1177/0038038505058365
Lee, J. J., & Rice, C. (2007). Welcome to America? International student perceptions of discrimination. Higher Education, 53(3), 381–409. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-005-4508-3
Lee, J. yeon, & Ciftci, A. (2014). Asian international students’ socio-cultural adaptation: Influence of multicultural personality, assertiveness, academic self-efficacy, and social support. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 38(1), 97–105. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2013.08.009
Les Back, Andy Bennett, Laura Desfor Edles, Margaret Gibson, David Inglis, Ronald jacobs, and I. W. (2012). Cultural Sociology an Introduction. Cultural sociology. An Introduction.
Macionis, J. J., & Plummer, K. (2008). Sociology. A Global Introduction. https://doi.org/papers2://publication/uuid/54DA0A9B-80DB-41D5-97B2-79B1CA3F7E44
Mattila, L.-R., Pitkäjärvi, M., & Eriksson, E. (2010). International student nurses’ experiences of clinical practice in the Finnish health care system. Nurse Education in Practice, 10(3), 153–157. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nepr.2009.05.009
Mazrui, A. A. A., Wondji, C., & Unesco. International Scientific Committee for the Drafting of a General History of Africa. (1999). Africa since 1935. General history of Africa ; 8.
Mbiti, J. S. (1993). African Religions and Philosophy. African Religions and Philosophy, 1–28.
McClure, J. W. (2007). International graduates’ cross-cultural adjustment: Experiences, coping strategies, and suggested programmatic responses. Teaching in Higher Education, 12(2), 199–217. https://doi.org/10.1080/13562510701191976
Miner, H., & Kuper, H. (1948). An African Aristocracy: Rank Among the Swazi. American Sociological Review. https://doi.org/10.2307/2086838
Misra, R., Crist, M., & Burant, C. J. (2003). Relationships among life stress, social support, academic stressors, and reactions to stressors of international students in the United States. Int. J. Stress Manag.
Mori, S. C. (2000). Addressing the Mental Health Concerns of International Students. Journal of Counseling & Development, 78(2), 137–144. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1556-6676.2000.tb02571.x
Morrison, J., Merrick, B., Higgs, S., & Métais, J. Le. (2005). Researching the performance of international students in the UK. Studies in Higher Education. https://doi.org/10.1080/03075070500095762
Napoli, A., & Wortman, P. (1996). A Meta-Analysis of the Impact of Academic and Social Integration on Persistence of Community College Students. Journal of Applied Research in the Community College, 4, 5–21.
Neuman, W. L. (2014). Social Research Methods: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches. Relevance of social research (Vol. 8). https://doi.org/10.2307/3211488
Oberg, K. (1960). Cultural Shock: Adjustment to New Cultural Environments. Practical Anthropology, 7(4), 177–182. https://doi.org/10.1177/009182966000700405
OECD. (2006). The internationalisation of Higher Education: towards an explicit policy. In Education policy analysis 2006: focus on Higher Education (pp. 67–89). https://doi.org/10.1787/epa-2006-3-en
Özkan, M., & Akgün, B. (2010). Turkey’s opening to Africa. Journal of Modern African Studies, 48(4), 525–546. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022278X10000595
Phinney, J. S., & Ong, A. D. (2007). Conceptualization and Measurement of Ethnic Identity: Current Status and Future Directions. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 54(3), 271–281. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0167.54.3.271
Phinney, J. S., & Onwughalu, M. (1996). Racial identity and perception of American ideals among African American and African students in the United States. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 20(2), 127–140. https://doi.org/10.1016/0147-1767(95)00040-2
Pyvis, D., & Chapman, A. (2005). Culture shock and the international student ‘offshore’’.’ Journal of Research in International Education, 4(1), 23–42. https://doi.org/10.1177/1475240905050289
Quillian, L. (2006). New Approaches to Understanding Racial Prejudice and Discrimination. Annual Review of Sociology, 32(1), 299–328. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.soc.32.061604.123132
Radcliffe-Brown, A. R., & Forde, D. (1952). African Systems of Kinship and Marriage. Population (French Edition). https://doi.org/10.2307/1524287
Rajapaksa, S., & Dundes, L. (2002). It’s a Long Way Home: International Student Adjustment to Living in the United States. Journal of College Student Retention: Research, Theory & Practice, 4(1), 15–28. https://doi.org/10.2190/5HCY-U2Q9-KVGL-8M3K
Rosenbloom, S. R., & Way, N. (2004). Experiences of Discrimination among African American, Asian American, and Latino Adolescents in an Urban High School. Youth & Society, 35(4), 420–451. https://doi.org/10.1177/0044118X03261479
Rudmin, F. W. (2003). Critical History of the Acculturation Psychology of Assimilation, Separation, Integration, and Marginalization. Review of General Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1037//1089-2680.7.1.3
Rumbaut, R. G. (2008). Reaping what you sow: Immigration, youth, and reactive ethnicity. Applied Developmental Science, 12(2), 108–111. https://doi.org/10.1080/10888690801997341
Ryder, A. G., Alden, L. E., & Paulhus, D. L. (2000). Is acculturation unidimensional or bidimensional? A head-to-head comparison in the prediction of personality, self-identity, and adjustment. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79(1), 49–65. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.79.1.49
Sağınç, N. (2011). Üniversite Yaşamına Uyum Sürecine Etki Eden Faktörler ve Birbirleri ile İlişkileri. Uludağ Üniversitesi, Bursa.
Schwartz, S. J., Unger, J. B., Zamboanga, B. L., & Szapocznik, J. (2010). Rethinking the concept of acculturation: Implications for theory and research. American Psychologist, 65(4), 237–251. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0019330
Schwartz, S. J., Zamboanga, B. L., & Jarvis, L. H. (2007). Ethnic Identity and Acculturation in Hispanic Early Adolescents: Mediated Relationships to Academic Grades, Prosocial Behaviors, and Externalizing Symptoms. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 13(4), 364–373. https://doi.org/10.1037/1099-9809.13.4.364
Sherry, M., Thomas, P., & Chui, W. H. (2010). International students: A vulnerable student population. Higher Education, 60(1), 33–46. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-009-9284-z
Smith, A. D. (1991). National Identity. Identity, ZA3910(3), 226.
Smith, R. A., & Khawaja, N. G. (2011). A review of the acculturation experiences of international students. International Journal of Intercultural Relations. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2011.08.004
Steiner, N. (2009). International migration and citizenship today. International Migration and Citizenship Today. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203875544
Strauss, A., & Corbin, J. (2008). Basics of Qualitative Research: Techniques and Procedures for Developing Grounded Theory. Basics of Qualitative Research Grounded Theory Procedures and Techniques (Vol. 3). https://doi.org/10.4135/9781452230153
Sumer, S., Poyrazli, S., & Grahame, K. (2008). Predictors of depression and anxiety among international students. Journal of Counseling & Development, 86(Fall), 429–438. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1556-6678.2008.tb00531.x
Tolay, J. (2015). Discovering Immigration into Turkey: The Emergence of a Dynamic Field. International Migration, 53(6), 57–73. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2435.2012.00741.x
Unesco. (2011). UNESCO and Education: “ Everyone has the right to education .” Education, 1–32.
Vansina, J. (1962). A Comparison of African Kingdoms. Africa: Journal of the International African Institute, 32(4), 324–335. https://doi.org/10.2307/1157437
Varghese, N. V. (2008). Globalization of higher education and cross-border student mobility. Research Papers IIEP, 1–33. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-36708-3_2
Ward, C. (2013). Probing identity, integration and adaptation: Big questions, little answers. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 37(4), 391–404. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2013.04.001
Ward, C., Bochner, S., & Furnham, A. (2005). The psychology of culture shock. 2nd edition London: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0147-1767(02)00037-8
Ward, C., & Kennedy, A. (1992). Locus of control, mood disturbance, and social difficulty during cross-cultural transitions. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 16(2), 175–194. https://doi.org/10.1016/0147-1767(92)90017-O
Ward, C., & Kennedy, A. (1999). The measurement of sociocultural adaptationWard, C., & Kennedy, A. (1999). The measurement of sociocultural adaptation. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 23(4), 659–677. http://doi.org/10.1016/S0147-1767(99)00014-0. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 23(4), 659–677. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0147-1767(99)00014-0
Ward, C., & Kennedy, A. (2001). Coping with cross-cultural transition. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 32(5), 636–642. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022101032005007
Ward, C., & Searle, W. (1991). The impact of value discrepancies and cultural identity on psychological and sociocultural adjustment of sojourners. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 15(2), 209–224. https://doi.org/10.1016/0147-1767(91)90030-K
Weinreich, P. (2009). “Enculturation”, not “acculturation”: Conceptualising and assessing identity processes in migrant communities. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 33(2), 124–139. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2008.12.006
Winkelman, M. (1994). Cultural Shock and Adaptation. Journal of Counseling & Development, 73(2), 121–126. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1556-6676.1994.tb01723.x
Yu, B., & Wright, E. (2016). Socio-cultural adaptation, academic adaptation and satisfaction of international higher degree research students in Australia. Tertiary Education and Management, 22(1), 49–64. https://doi.org/10.1080/13583883.2015.1127405
Zheng, X., & Berry, J. W. (1991). Psychological Adaptation of Chinese Sojourners in Canada. International Journal of Psychology, 26(4), 451–470. https://doi.org/10.1080/00207599108247134
Zhou, Y., Jindal-Snape, D., Topping, K., & Todman, J. (2008). Theoretical models of culture shock and adaptation in international students in higher education. Studies in Higher Education, 33(1), 63–75. https://doi.org/10.1080/03075070701794833