Hacettepe University Graduate School of Social Sciences Department of Translation and Interpretation THE STUDY ON THE PLACE OF TRANSLATED SELF-HELP LITERATURE WITHIN THE TURKISH LITERARY POLYSYSTEM BETWEEN THE YEARS 2000-2010 Sevda PEKCOŞKUN Master’s Thesis Ankara, 2013 THE STUDY ON THE PLACE OF TRANSLATED SELF-HELP LITERATURE WITHIN THE TURKISH LITERARY POLYSYSTEM BETWEEN THE YEARS 2000-2010 Sevda PEKCOŞKUN Hacettepe University Graduate School of Social Sciences Department of Translation and Interpretation Master’s Thesis Ankara, 2013 iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my supervisor Prof. Dr. Asalet ERTEN for her excellent support and guidance. I would like to thank her not only for her outstanding efforts, encouragement and suggestions during the thesis process, but also for the conversations and discussions we have had throughout the process. I would like to thank the President of the National Library, Tuncel ACAR for his invaluable support and the personnel in Department of Information Technologies for providing me book catalogs to be used in this study. My sincere thanks go to Vildan TENİŞ, the manager of Dost Kitabevi located in Kızılay, Ankara for providing me databases which have guided me throughout the process. I am also grateful for his great efforts, understanding and kindness. I am deeply and forever indebted to my father Nedim PEKCOŞKUN and my mother Nihal PEKCOŞKUN for their encouragement, support and love throughout my entire life. I would like to acknowledge my colleagues at Yaşar University for sincerely supporting and encouraging me throughout the process. iv ÖZET PEKCOŞKUN, Sevda. The Study on the Place of Translated Self-help Literature within the Turkish Literary Polysystem between the Years 2000-2010, Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Ankara, 2013. Kişisel gelişim edebiyatı günümüzün popüler yazın türlerinden biridir. Kitabevlerinde ve kütüphanelerde hem özgün hem de çeviri kişisel gelişim kitaplarına rastlamak mümkündür. Başlangıçta ABD’den ithal edilen kişisel gelişim kitapları, Türkiye’de şu an geniş bir kitleye hitap etmektedir. Tür, bireylerin karşılaştıkları günlük zorlukları aşmaları için destek ve rehberlik sağlayan bir araç haline gelmiştir. Zaman yönetiminden olumlu düşünceye kadar geniş bir konu yelpazesi olan kişisel gelişim yazınına kitabevlerinde ayrı bölümler ayrılmaktadır. Kitaplar, olumsuz bir durumun üstesinden gelmeleri için bireylere çeşitli yöntemler sunan rehberler konumundadır. Bu çalışma, 2000-2010 yılları arasında Türkiye’de basılmış çeviri ve özgün kişisel gelişim kitaplarının incelenmesine odaklanmıştır. Kişisel gelişim kitaplarıyla ilgili bilgi içeren veritabanları Ankara’da bulunan Milli Kütüphane ve Dost Kitabevi’nden derlenmiştir. Itamar Even-Zohar’ın Çoğuldizge Kuramı çalışmanın teorik altyapısını oluşturmaktadır ve çalışmada Türk yazın çoğuldizgesi içinde çeviri kişisel gelişim edebiyatının yeri saptanmaya çalışılmıştır. On yıllık süre kapsamında, özgün ve çeviri kişisel gelişim yazını istatistikler ışığında karşılaştırmalı olarak incelenmiştir. Türkiye’de meydana gelen sosyo-ekonomik ve kültürel değişimlere paralel olarak, kişisel gelişim türünün yazın çoğuldizgesindeki yerine ilişkin çıkarımlarda bulunulmuştur. Çeviri kişisel gelişim yazını, özgün eserlerle birlikte, Türk yazın çoğuldizgesinin şekillenmesinde büyük rol oynamaktadır ve bu rolü gün geçtikçe artmaktadır. Tür, Türkiye’de büyük bir kitle tarafından benimsenmiştir. Bireyler, toplumsal yaklaşımdan ziyade bireysel hayat biçimini benimsemeye devam ettikçe kişisel gelişim edebiyatı çoğuldizgenin merkezinde bulunmaya devam edecektir. v Bu çalışma, Türkiye’de basılan kişisel gelişim yazınının kapsamlı bir şekilde incelenmesine olanak sağlayan bir literatür taraması sunar. Çalışma, aynı zamanda Türk okuyucuların ve yayınevlerinin tercihlerine ışık tutacak sosyal bir bakış açışı getirir. Yazın çoğuldizgesinin bağımsız ve popüler bir bileşeni olan kişisel gelişim edebiyatı, yazarlarından karakteristik özelliklerine kadar tüm önemli yönleri içine alacak şekilde geniş bir yaklaşımla incelenmiştir. Bundan dolayı, çalışma, Türk yazın çoğuldizgesini bütün olarak ya da belli bileşenler temelinde ele alacak gelecek çalışmalar için bir kaynak niteliğindedir. Anahtar kelimeler: Kişisel Gelişim, Çeviri Kişisel Gelişim Yazını, Itamar Even- Zohar, Ulusal Yazın Çoğuldizgesi, Kişisel Gelişim Türü vi ABSTRACT PEKCOŞKUN, Sevda. The Study on the Place of Translated Self-help Literature within the Turkish Literary Polysystem between the Years 2000-2010, Master's Thesis, Ankara, 2013. Self-help literature is one of the popular genres in modern times. It is possible to see both original and translated self-help books in bookstores and libraries. Firstly imported from the USA, self-help books are now read by a vast audience in Turkey. The genre has become an agent that provides support and guidance in order to overcome daily challenges confronted by individuals. With its broad range of subjects from time management to positive thinking, separate bookstands are now allocated to the genre in bookstores. They have become mentors of individuals that offer methods to be applied in order to recover from a negative situation. This study focuses on the analysis of translated and original self-help genre including books published between the years 2000-2010 in Turkey. Databases which consist of information about self-help books have been retrieved from the National Library of Turkey and the bookstore Dost Kitabevi located in Ankara. Polysystem Theory by Itamar Even-Zohar has formed the theoretical background of the study and the position of the translated self-help genre in the Turkish literary polysystem has been tried to be determined. A comparative analysis has been made between original and translated self-help genre based on the 10-year period and supported by statistics. In parallel with socio- economic and cultural transformations experienced in the country, assumptions have been made on the position of self-help genre in the literary polysystem. It is observed that translated self-help literature, together with original works, plays a major role in shaping Turkish literary polysystem while gaining momentum each day. The genre has been adapted by a vast audience in Turkey. On condition that the people continue to adapt individual lifestyles vii rather than the collective spirit, self-help literature will sustain central positions in the polysystem. This study offers a literature review that enables comprehensive analysis of self-help genre published in Turkey. The study has also a social perspective that it sheds light to the preferences of Turkish readers and publishing houses. An independent and a popular component of the literary polysystem, self-help literature, is dealt broadly including its crucial elements from authors to characteristic features. The study serves as a resource for future studies which will examine the whole Turkish literary polysystem or the components. Key words: Self-help, Translated Self-help Literature, Itamar Even-Zohar, National Literary Polysystem, Self-help Genre viii TABLE OF CONTENTS KABUL VE ONAY ....................................................................................... i BİLDİRİM ................................................................................................... ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ............................................................................. iii ÖZET .......................................................................................................... iv ABSTRACT ................................................................................................. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS .............................................................................. viii INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................ 1 CHAPTER 1 – SELF-HELP LITERATURE AT A GLANCE ........................ 7 1.1 What is Self-help and the Self-help Group? .......................... 7 1.2 What is Self-help Literature? ................................................. 9 1.3 A Special Sub-genre of Self-help Literature: NLP…………… 9 1.4 Popularity and Spread of Self-help Books …………………... 12 CHAPTER 2 – BRIEF OVERVIEW OF SELF-HELP LITERATURE IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA AND IN TURKEY… 19 2.1 Historical Development of Self-help Literature in the United States of America ...…………………….................................. 19 2.2 Historical Development of Self-help Literature in Turkey ….. 34 ix CHAPTER 3 - THE POSITION OF TRANSLATED SELF-HELP GENRE WITHIN THE TURKISH LITERARY POLYSYSTEM ……… 52 3.1 Polysystem Theory ................................................................ 52 3.2 The Role of Translated Literature within the Turkish Literary Polysystem ...……………………………………………………. 64 3.3 Emergence of the Self-help Genre in the Turkish Literary Polysystem ...……………………………………………………. 69 3.4 The Role of Translated Self-help Genre in the Turkish Literary Polysystem ..…………………………………………... 73 3.5 The Novels with Self-help Character ..................................... 91 3.6 Self-help Books as Bestsellers in the Turkish Literary Polysystem ......………….………………………………………. 96 CHAPTER 4 – GENERAL OVERVIEW OF SELF-HELP LITERATURE .... 110 4.1 Text-type of the Self-help Genre ........................................... 111 4.2 General Theme of the Genre ................................................ 112 4.3 Classification of Self-help Books as per Their Contents …… 114 4.4 Genre Analysis of the Self-help Books ..……………………... 120 4.5 Nature of the Titles of Self-help Books .................................. 128 CONCLUSION ............................................................................................ 131 BIBLIOGRAPHY ......................................................................................... 138 APPENDIX ..…………………………………………………………………….. 144 ÖZGEÇMİŞ ................................................................................................. 147 1 INTRODUCTION Self-help literature is a popular genre in today's world, especially in the developed and developing countries in parallel with socio-economic and cultural requirements. Self-help literature generally regards the "individual" as the sole responsible person of his/her life who has the power to transform negative aspects into desired outcomes. Self-help books support individuals to reach these desired outcomes via offering methods and techniques. This sounds like an attractive and quick way to individuals willing to change defective parts of their lives. People of today's world need optimism in order to cope with daily challenges and the genre is ready to boost optimism and reduce the negativity. Therefore, self-help works become indispensible elements on bookshelves of the modern individual. Sales figures of self-help books support the popularity of the genre. According to the data retrieved from dailymail.co.uk, dated August 2011, publishers have made 60 million pounds between the years 2006 and 2011 in the UK and the worth of the self-help market is more than 10 billion dollars for one year in the USA (http://www.dailymail.co.uk/femail/article-2026001/Self-help-books-ruin- life-They-promise-sell-millions.html#ixzz2TdmHNBZv). The popularity and acceptance of self-help genre resulting from the wish of individuals towards changing their unsatisfying lives have led the genre to spread all over the world. The trend has naturally affected Turkey and self-help genre has become a crucial element of bookstores and libraries all over the country. The USA could be regarded as the original country of self-help genre and main concepts of the genre have been mostly determined by American authors so that translated works occupy great places in the Turkish literary system. English is naturally the most common source language of the books to be translated into Turkish. Mentioning about the concepts and methods which are easily applicable and beneficial for the people all over the world regardless of their different backgrounds, translated self-help books are simultaneously preferred besides the books written by Turkish authors in Turkey. Main key concept in self-help 2 genre "positive thinking" which gives both original and translated works a similar character is encountered in books regardless of their home country, authors or source cultures. Self-help literature has a home repertoire in Turkey and also has an inventory of translated works generally from the USA. National literary system belonging to a society cannot be isolated from the changes experienced within the culture. The position of the genre within the literary polysystem shows the expectations and wishes of the Turkish society and reflects socio-cultural, economic, historical, ideological and social transformations that have been experienced by this society. Changing characteristics of the society have drastic effects on national literature and literary works that are produced or translated. This is also valid for the position of the self-help literature in Turkey. Self-help literature began to appear widely on bookshelves in the 2000s and it is possible to see separate stands allocated to self-help books at bookstores in Turkey now. This trend mainly originated from the USA and spread all around the world, surely to Turkey, the country which is eager to adapt American lifestyle especially in big cities. Conditions which are required for the adaptation of self-help literature have been established in the country. The genre generally addresses to educated individuals who are the members of working class living in big cities. Self-help books help them to survive in daily life by advising methods to cherish their lives. It is possible to say that the genre in Turkey is mostly directed towards middle class which is eager to cope with daily challenges and lead a more prosperous life. Self-help genre in the Turkish literary polysystem has occupied a situation both in the centre and periphery since 2000. Turkish readers read self-help books written by original and foreign authors simultaneously such as Üstün Dökmen, Doğan Cüceloğlu and Mümin Sekman; and mostly Northern American authors such as Anthony Robbins, John Gray, Robin Sharma and Og Mandino. 3 Despite being accepted as a non-literary and non-canonized genre by most literary critics, self-help literature has entered literary polysystem and gradually gained momentum over the years, it has caught the attention from every section of the society and even its efficacy has begun to be discussed in academic fields especially by psychologists. Aim and Method of the Study Self-help literature is a significant genre which has particularly gained importance in the 2000s throughout the world. This new genre occupies different positions in the national polysystems. The aim of this study is to analyze and explain the position of the genre within the Turkish literary polysystem in recent years and detect its contributions to the whole polysystem. For the purpose of achieving the objectives, the literary polysystem should be dealt with as a whole and its correlations with other literary systems should be analyzed in a detailed way. The position of self-help literature, whether original or translated, in the Turkish literary polysystem within the years 2000-2010 is analyzed throughout the study due to the fact that self-help literature in the USA and in Europe and simultaneously in Turkey has gained huge popularity and reached its peak point in the following years beginning with 2000. This means that self-help literature including both original and translated books occupies places at different levels in the Turkish literary polysystem. The catalogue obtained from the National Library located in Ankara which includes the information about original and translated self-help books published between the years 2000 and 2010 has been turned into a database and analyzed in accordance with the Polysystem Theory of Itamar Even-Zohar. The position of translated self-help books within the whole literary polysystem has been tried to be analyzed based on the article entitled "The Position of Translated Literature within the Literary Polysystem" written by Itamar Even-Zohar. Assumptions have been made about the position of translated self-help literature as well as original works within the literary 4 system in compliance with socio-economic and cultural transformations experienced in Turkey between the years 2000 and 2010. Another database has also been retrieved from Dost Kitabevi located in Ankara including data about original and translated self-help books published within the 10-year period. A bestseller list of self-help books has also been taken from Dost Kitabevi in order to determine the position of original and translated works and explain the transfers between central and peripheral positions when self- help literature is taken as an adjacent system within the polysystem which has its own intra-relations and transfers. Another bestseller list including books from all genres has also been obtained from Dost Kitabevi in order to detect the position of self-help genre, especially its translated part, within the whole literary system. Available book supplements of a national newspaper, Radikal, including bestseller lists for the 10-year period have been taken from the National Library and prepared as word documents. These bestseller lists published for each week have contributed to the assessment of the position of self-help genre within the whole polysystem. In Chapter I, an introduction to self-help genre is presented. The concepts of self-help and self-help literature are defined. General subjects of self-help literature and a sub-genre of self-help which has original characteristics, Neuro- Linguistic Programming (NLP), are explained briefly. Then, the popularity and spread of the genre throughout the world and the reasons behind this trend are dealt with. In Chapter II, the historical adventure of self-help genre in the USA and the development of the genre in Turkey are discussed. Both pioneer authors and modern counterparts who are the main actors in the progress of self-help literature are given. The development of self-help genre throughout the years is analyzed with a detailed and diachronic view with the contribution of crucial socio-economic and cultural events. In Chapter III, theoretical background of the study is explained. Data obtained from the National Library and Dost Kitabevi are used to make assumptions 5 about the position of translated self-help genre in the Turkish literary polysystem. Whether it has reached its objective as introducing the genre to Turkish audience and taking part at high levels or central positions in the national polysystem is discussed. The effects of the self-help genre, with its translated and original components, to the whole polysystem are also underlined. Tables and graphs are shown in order to make the explanations more clear. Driving forces behind the current position of the genre in the polysystem are discussed and predictions about the future position of the genre within the polysystem are made. Analysis of translated self-help literature is strengthened by assessing its position in bestseller lists. The novels including self-help elements are also analyzed in this chapter. In Chapter IV, self-help genre is dealt with as a whole. The content and style of self-help books are tried to be explained by giving examples from books written by well-known foreign and Turkish authors. Characteristic features of self-help genre are explained in a comprehensive way. These features are also the factors behind the popularity and high acceptance of the genre that they are the main reasons which contribute to self-help books in order to move to the centre of the polysystem from peripheral positions. Research Questions The study shall search for appropriate answers to following questions: • Which positions do translated and original self-help literature occupy in the Turkish literary polysystem? • Which factors are dominant for the self-help literature, including both original and translated books, to occupy the central position in the Turkish literary polysystem? • To what extent do the characteristics, culture and choices of the target readers affect the works to be translated or the position of translated self- help literature within the national polysystem? 6 • How may translated self-help literature shape the centre and periphery of the literary polysystem? In what ways does it affect the original literature? • What are the main reasons behind the popularity and spread of self-help literature throughout the world in 2000s? • What are the general features of self-help literature? Limitations The catalogue obtained from the National Library and the database taken from Dost Kitabevi are used for the determination of the position of translated self- help genre and the genre as a whole in the literary polysystem. Although lots of books are available on those lists and the lists offer a comprehensive and detailed compilation, there could be missing books published within the 10-year period on these catalogs. Bestseller lists of Radikal book supplement taken from the National Library for the 10-year period are on the weekly basis; but, the lists of some weeks are missing. However, available lists are adequate for reaching conclusions towards the position of the genre in the literary polysystem. Moreover, whole bestseller lists taken from Dost Kitabevi also contribute to determine the acceptability rate of the society towards translated self-help genre. 7 CHAPTER 1 SELF-HELP LITERATURE AT A GLANCE 1.1. WHAT IS SELF-HELP AND THE SELF-HELP GROUP Self-help means “the act or state of providing the means to help oneself without relying on the assistance of others” (Collinsdictionary.com). Individual lies on the centre of the self-help thought and personal capability of assisting oneself determines the achievement of the self-help process. Although self-help is the concept that includes the individual and his/her attempts to make life better for himself/herself, external factors may help the individual to get through the process successfully. The self-help group is one of these external factors that helps the individual in the self-help process. People gather in to share their negative and positive experiences, psychological problems, concerns and seek solutions within the group generally guided by a coach who is qualified in the field of self-help. Groups deal with various issues from anxiety to serious health problems specifically. Personal relations, phobias, depression, mild mental problems are some general subjects that are focused on self-help groups. People seek advice in groups and anticipate from the group to bring recovery and wellness to their lives. Self-help groups are the components of national self-help organizations and groups work with the aim of finding a solution collectively to individual problems and illnesses (Archibald, 2007: 35). Individuals with similar problems participate in self-help groups and exchange their methods to overcome an unwanted situation. Knowing that other members of the group suffer from the same or similar problem boosts the morale of the individual. As Archibald states, 8 membership to a self-help group is often limited to the people who suffer from a similar physical or psychological problem and who are in relation to those suffering (2007: 27); for instance, the spouse of an alcoholic man could take part in relevant groups in order to learn how to communicate better with her husband. However, professional and interested groups could participate in self- help groups as provisional members (Archibald, 2007: 27). Therefore, the network expands and other members of the community become informed about a given situation. Although professionals may provide consultation and guidance, deliver speech and connect the group to other resources, groups always function with a member-centered manner (Archibald, 2007: 28) which is the main concept of the self-help nature. Archibald points out that self-help organizations which are organized by members firstly appeared because of the inadequacy of healthcare services in the USA in the late twentieth century (2007: 4-5). This is not a specific case for the USA. Problems in healthcare services in modern times direct people in other countries to seek their own methods and solutions in order to solve undesired conditions. Self-help groups in which people share their experiences and personal stories about a certain problem in order to assist themselves and others aiming at overcoming negative situations (Archibald, 2007: 7) deal with a large scale of conditions. Some self-help groups founded in the USA are National Amputee Foundation, Alcoholics Anonymous, Autism Network and Alzheimer's Disease. Besides healthcare issues, there are groups for psychological problems such as divorce and sexual orientation (Archibald, 2007: 25). Websites particular to a specific health problem are available in Turkey which could also be regarded as self-help groups. Two websites on the rheumatoid disease, Ankylosing Spondilitis, are available entitled kupaAS (AS hastaları dayanışma grubu; available in http://www.ankilozanspondilit.com/) and ASHAD (Ankilozan Spondilit Hasta Derneği; available in http://www.ashad.org/) in which there are documents, information, videos about the disease and forums where the 9 patients and parents of the patients share their experiences and ask questions to professionals. 1.2. WHAT IS SELF-HELP LITERATURE The self-help book is the other agent that assists the individual in continuing his/her self-help journey besides the self-help group. Self-help books could be regarded as the products of an independent genre which has its own content and style; therefore it would be appropriate to use the expression of self-help literature or self-help genre in order to describe the conglomerate of self-help books. Self-help literature is a broad genre which has numerous sub-genres. Books on boosting self-confidence, management skills, success, motivation, financial abilities, happiness, positive thinking, communication skills and the books which give advice to overcome anger, stress, depression, obsession, anxiety, fear and addictions are common products of self-help genre. The author of the self-help book provides guidance for the reader to overcome self-development problems through offering steps and methods to be realized by the reader in order to achieve self-development goals. 1.3. A SPECIAL SUB-GENRE OF SELF-HELP LITERATURE: NLP NLP is the abbreviation of Neuro-linguistic Programming. Ready and Burton explain the components of the concept as follows: • Neuro relates to what's happening in your mind. • Linguistic refers not only to the words you use in your communication, but also your body language and how you use it. 10 • Programming tackles the persistent patterns of behavior that you learn and then repeat (2010: 1). As understood from the definition above, NLP is a more complicated sub-genre of self-help literature than other sub-genres mentioned in the preceding section. The concept of NLP was born in 1970s at the University of Santa Cruz. The founders were Richard Bandler who was a master's student of information sciences and mathematics and Dr. John Grindler who was a professor of linguistics (Ready and Burton, 2010: 11). Bandler and Grindler began to study people who were good at communication skills and successful in helping their clients. The psychotherapists who they studied were Virginia Satir (Conjoint Family Therapy developer), Fritz Perls (the founder of Gestalt Psychology) and Milton H. Erickson (a pioneer in Clinical Hypnotherapy) (Ready and Burton, 2010: 11). NLP study was based on understanding the secret behind the achievements of successful people. Skills of linguists Alfred Korzybski and Noam Chomsky, social anthropologist Gregory Bateson and psychotherapist Paul Watzlawick also contributed to NLP studies (Ready and Burton, 2010: 11). It is understood that NLP is a comprehensive study enriched by the professionals from different fields. NLP could be defined as the science of modeling the human behavior. It focuses on the functions of the mind such as thinking, organizing wishes, fears, objectives and motivation. NLP is a "user's manual" for the mind (http://www.nlpco.com/what-is-nlp/#ixzz2TH7GDpJX) advising that the individual should use mind patterns to achieve his/her goals and dreams. As a sub-genre of the self-help literature, the main goal of NLP is to make positive changes in the lives of individuals by providing guidance in parallel with the general concept of the self-help genre. However, the word "modeling" stands at the core point of NLP. Modeling the thought and behavior patterns of successful people helps to change erroneous points of individual's lives. 11 Understanding the way of thinking, feeling, behavior and language of individuals and producing desired outcomes form the basis of NLP and NLP offers a methodology for people in order to model successful performances of geniuses and leaders (http://www.nlpacademy.co.uk/what_is_nlp/). NLP techniques could be used in many fields in daily life such as personal development, business life and communication. Below is a part from the book Unlimited Power written by Anthony Robbins who is a well-known self-help author using NLP techniques in his works: Adnan Khashoggi modeled Rockefeller. He wanted to be a wealthy, successful businessman, so he modeled someone who had done what he wanted to do. Steven Spielberg modeled people at Universal Studios even before he was hired. Virtually everyone who has been a great success has had a model or a mentor or teachers who guided him in the right direction (Robbins, 2001: 210). Robbins underlines the Saudi Arabian businessman Adnan Khashoggi's modeling of American industrialist John Davison Rockefeller in order to reach success and wealth and American film director Steven Spielberg's modeling of people at Universal Studios with the aim of reaching success. Robbins continues as follows: Now you have a clear internal representation of where you want to go. You can save time and energy and avoid traveling down wrong paths by following the example of people who've succeeded already. Who are the people in your life who can serve as models? There are resources in friends, family, national leaders, celebrities. If you don't know good models, you should make a point of going out and finding some (2001: 210). The aim of NLP is to facilitate and shorten the period of someone's self- development process. Modeling the lives of successful people chosen by individuals in accordance with their desires and lifelong dreams both prevents taking wrong decisions about their lives and provides a more comfortable process. Robbins calls on the people to search for good models who will guide them in their lives. 12 1.4. POPULARITY AND SPREAD OF SELF-HELP BOOKS Readers encounter with a vast accumulation of self-help books in bookstores, libraries and even in hypermarkets. Particular bookstands are allocated to self- help literature where both original and translated books are present. The market of self-help books has become significant and a visible component of a given national literature that the genre has a potential audience from different backgrounds and social levels. Lifestyles, opinions, judgments of individuals, socio-economic and cultural perspectives inspire literary choices. Literature of a society is shaped by requirements, aspirations and demands of the individuals living in the culture. From this point forth, it would be appropriate to underline that main common reason behind the popularity of self-help books is the "demand" of the individuals. Modern man needs guidance and advice in order to overcome daily challenges encountered with both in private and business life. Therefore, individuals of today's world seek agents that will help them to recover from imperfect points of their lives and lead a better and more prosperous life. The requirement towards a more successful, relaxing and brilliant life; briefly, a more positive life, directs individuals to read self-help books. That's to say, demand of the individual for more satisfying conditions lie at the bottom of the popularity of self-help genre. Starker underlines four basic factors behind the power of the genre as cost, accessibility, privacy and excitement (2008: 5-6). These factors contribute to the acceptance and popularity of the genre among readers. Buying a self-help book naturally costs less than visiting a consultant, psychologist or psychiatrist with the aim of searching through positive answers. While psychological therapies require several sessions costing a lot, price of a self-help book varies between 3 dollars and 20 dollars or 5 and 20 Turkish Liras. Second-hand books with lower prices are also available for potential readers. Besides paperback and hardcover formats, pocket-sized self-help 13 books are also available with lowest prices. For instance, a famous self-help book written by Ahmet Şerif İzgören entitled Avucunuzdaki Kelebek is available both in paperback and pocket-sized formats. Pocket-sized self-help books also contribute to the popularity of self-help genre that they turn into reference books that could be read anytime in anywhere thanks to their minimal sizes. Other reasons behind huge popularity of self-help books are their vast availability and accessibility to the public. Obtaining a self-help book includes an easier and less complicated process rather than organizing an appointment with a professional who works in the field. Individuals prefer going to the nearest bookstore and buying a self-help book or even ordering online with just one click instead of getting stuck in heavy traffic in order to arrive at consultant's office and sitting long hours in waiting halls. The self-help book saves time for people who lead complex lives in busy cities. People may feel shy and embarrassed in front of a professional who bombards the counselee with questions about the aspects of his/her life. The individual could hesitate to mention about his/her private, business and sexual life; personal relations and concerns. The self-help book brings more privacy to the reader that even though the author and the reader do not know each other, directions offered throughout the book by the author lead the reader to positive dimensions. Starker correlates the excitement factor with the selling capacity of the book (2008: 6). Individuals feel excited and enthusiastic about reading a bestseller. A self-help book selling thousands of copies gives the message to the potential readers that it does work. The individual feels that there are other people suffering from similar negative conditions and they seek help from the same agents in order to reach better conditions. Bestseller self-help books as popular works of the literary system attract the attention of the readers and people feel eager to read and get advice from them. The content and style of self-help books are other crucial factors of their popularity. Since the self-help book is written with a dialogical tone and a lighter 14 language, the lay person easily understands the concepts mentioned in the book. The self-help book with its standard language is quickly accepted by a vast audience from different socio-economic and educational levels far from professional backgrounds. The self-help book includes similar answers to similar problems such as stress and anxiety confronted by individuals all over the world. Therefore, it uses a global language excluding cultural constraints and translation activities occupy a great place within the self-help market. Translations of self-help books strongly contribute to the huge spread of self- help concept throughout the world. The man of the modern day leads a busy and hectic life full of challenges and problems. Therefore, individuals rushing between the work and the home do not allocate time to consider upon their problems and appropriate solutions. Therefore, they need quick-fix solutions to be applied which would save time for the course of life. Quick-fix solutions and feasible directions included in self-help books are widely welcomed by potential readers and contribute to the popularity of the genre. Variety of subjects mentioned in self-help books makes the genre more popular for the readers. The readers have the opportunity to choose the most appropriate book easily among numerous books for a specific problem. A comprehensive scale of subjects varying from diet, finance, personal relations, child rearing, self-confidence to positive thinking, achievement, communication skills and time management embraces potential readers who seek solutions for their specific problems. Self-help literature including paperbacks and hardcover books is one of the components of the self-help market. TV programs on self-development, radio shows, magazines comprised of self-help articles are other driving forces that contribute to the boosting of the market as a whole. Availability of audio books and quick access to e-books; that's to say, opportunities provided by technological advances are important agents that affect the whole market positively. All components of the self-help market benefit from and support each other. 15 The figures support the popularity of the self-help market as a whole. According to the 360-page report prepared by Marketdata Enterprises, Inc. entitled "The U.S. Market For Self-Improvement Products & Services", total worth of self- improvement market of the U.S. was 10.53 billion dollars in 2009 and 5.5% increase is prospected till 2014 (http://www.marketdataenterprises.com/pressreleases/SIMkt2010PR.pdf). It is understood from the data above that self-help functions as an independent and huge sector which directly affects daily lives of individuals. Marketdata research also underlines that 406 million dollars were spent on self-help books in 2009 and estimates it will reach to 854 million dollars in 2014. It is clear that the worth of self-help books will be doubled in 2014 when compared to the statistics of 2009. Self-help literature will boost, flourish and develop day by day in compliance with the demand of the readers. Sales figures of self-help books are the indicators of the acceptability and popularity of the genre. Specific examples could be given on sales figures. Self- help classic How to Win Friends and Influence People written by Dale Carnegie firstly published in 1936 has sold 15 million copies; The Road Less Traveled written by M. Scott Peck has sold over five million copies since 1978 (Valiunas, 2010: 85). Authors of self-help books gain big amounts thanks to the preferences of the readers. For instance, Dr. Phil McGraw, author of Self- Matters: Creating Your Life from the Inside Out earns 20 million dollars a year from his books (Valiunas, 2010: 85). Sales figures and millions of copies support the assumption that self-help genre addresses to a mass audience who contributes to the genre towards its moving to the centre of a literary system. The self-help book does not lose its popularity throughout the years due to the fact that basic concepts, main subjects and solutions that are offered in these books do not show great differences regardless of the publishing time of self- help works. For instance, Think and Grow Rich written by Napoleon Hill was firstly published in 1937 and has sold over 70 million copies, and continues to preserve its popularity today (http://www.forbes.com/forbes/2011/0411/opinions- rich-karlgaard-innovation-rules-american-religion_print.html). Even though self- 16 help genre could be regarded as one of the components of popular literature, self-help books are not the ones that lose their effectiveness over time. Similar examples could be given from the self-help adventure in Turkey. Avucunuzdaki Kelebek, written by Ahmet Şerif İzgören and firstly published in April, 2004, has made its 71st edition in February 2012. Another book written by İzgören Şu Hortumlu Dünyada Fil Yalnız Bir Hayvandır was firstly published in November, 2002, and its 65th edition has come out in August, 2011. Translated self-help genre also has become popular in Turkey that the 18th translated edition of self-help legend Men are from Mars, Women are from Venus written by John Gray and translated into Turkish as Erkekler Mars'tan, Kadınlar Venüs'ten has been published by Altın Kitaplar Yayınevi in May, 2012. As mentioned above, translation activities affect the spread of self-help works throughout the world positively. Translations make the book produced in a specific culture available for individuals all over the world. Since self-help books written in different cultures focus on similar concepts, translated self-help books strike chords such as original works. Living, Loving and Learning written by Leo Buscaglia selling thirteen million copies has been translated into twenty languages (Valiunas, 2010: 85), The 7 Habits of Highly Effective People written by famous author Stephen Covey has sold 15 million copies and has been translated into 38 languages (http://www.today.com/id/48203718/ns/today- entertainment/t/habits-highly-effective-people-author-stephen-covey- dies/#.UYFI6LUqy1h). Popular self-help books are translated into many world languages which gives way to the huge spread of the genre. International bestseller The Secret written by Rhonda Byrne has been translated into 46 languages and The Power written by the same author has been translated into 43 languages (http://www.thesecret.tv/creative-biography.html). Millions of dollars are spent on self-help products every year and they become more and more accessible thanks to the "digital world" today. On condition that the modern man continues struggling with mild psychological problems such as depression or stress and the wish to gain more does not lose its popularity, self- help market will continue to perform its mission as to support people towards 17 the positive attitudes and will gain momentum in the future. Typing "self-help" into Google search engine brings up 50 million results while "kişisel gelişim" brings back over 4.5 million results from Google. It should be underlined that self-help literature occupies a great place in both self-help market and literary systems of different cultures. Supply and demand chain supports self-help literature to be popular in modern times. It is quite known that men and women of 2000s, especially the ones living in big and busy cities of developed and developing countries, struggle with stress and mild psychological problems. Therefore, it becomes a great requirement for them to read self-help books in order to feel better. According to the Office for National Statistics Psychiatric Morbidity Report published in 2001, 1 out of 4 British people experiences at least one diagnosable mental problem in a year and WHO alarms that 450 million people worldwide suffer from a mental health problem (2001) (http://www.mentalhealth.org.uk/help- information/mental-health-statistics/UK-worldwide/?view=Standard). It is quite natural that people suffering from mental disorders will seek advice from different agents and self-help books are the ones to be easily accessed. Similarly, there are no positive statistics for Turkey. Ministry of Health has declared in October, 2012, that 2 million 100 thousand people in Turkey suffer from depression. This means that 2.8 people out of 100 have mental problems (http://www.haberturk.com/saglik/haber/787112-turkiyede-2-milyon-100-bin-kisi- depresyonda). These statistics strongly underline that people of 2000s greatly suffer from mental health problems generally defined as depression, anxiety and stress. Self-help books become important guides to be relied upon at that point. According to the information stated in the Guardian, a campaign called as "The Books on Prescription" will be launched in May, 2013 in the UK. In the scope of the campaign, general practitioners will prescribe self-help books for people suffering from mild mental health concerns such as anxiety and depression to be borrowed from local libraries (http://www.guardian.co.uk/society/2013/jan/31/gps-prescribe-self-help-books). 18 The example shows the crucial position of self-help books in a nation which enter into the surgeries and local libraries. Books such as The Feeling Good Handbook, How to Stop Worrying and Overcoming Anger and Irritability will be some of the books among 30 prescription titles which will be stocked in libraries throughout England to develop the welfare of the nation where 6 million people experience depression and anxiety (http://www.guardian.co.uk/society/2013/jan/31/gps-prescribe-self- help-books). Men and women of the modern world need guidance and assistance in order to get rid of negative conditions such as lack of self- confidence, fears and stress. The requirement and desire for overcoming these unwanted situations conduct people to read self-help books. Fostered by the needs of individuals, the popularity of self-help genre gradually increases in parallel with the unsatisfying conditions of modern life. 19 CHAPTER 2 BRIEF OVERVIEW OF SELF-HELP LITERATURE IN THE UNITE D STATES OF AMERICA AND IN TURKEY 2.1. HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF SELF-HELP LITERATURE IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA History of self-help literature in the USA dates back to the 17th century. Self- help literature in those times has taken its roots from Protestantism and Puritan ideology. Puritans, who were the founders of the first colonies in the USA, believed that as long as people lived in compliance with the wishes of God, God would meet their expectations and individuals were responsible for shaping their lives according to themselves (Starker, 2008: 13). It is possible to say that Puritan faith, suggesting some good values such as hard work, thrift, tolerance, social integrity and community spirit, dominated the genre in the 17th century. Guide to Heaven written by Samuel Hardy in 1673, The Practice of Piety written by Bishop Bayly in 1611 and Bonifacius: Essays to Do Good written by Cotton Mather in 1710 could be regarded as the first works of self-help literature that advise people to live their lives according to the values of Puritanism (Starker, 2008: 14). Books falling within the genre of self-help were predominated by religious background and doctrines of Protestant, particularly Puritan movement in that century. It is appropriate to say that self-help literature in the 17th century was developed as an inspirational genre affected by Protestant Christianity and moral values which are also the main concepts of Puritanism. It is possible to come across moral messages in the genre rooted from Puritan tradition 20 advising people to be hardworking, responsible, humble, sober, thrifty; in brief, to have good moral values. Benjamin Franklin who was an author, politician, diplomat and a scientist born in 1706 was an important figure in American history and has a crucial place in the development of self-help literature of the 18th century in the USA. Franklin combined the virtues of Puritanism with his experience and the philosophy of the 18th century (Cawelti, 1965: 13). That is to say, self-improvement besides collective and social development suggested by Puritan ideology gained importance. Franklin wrote Poor Richard’s Almanac (1732-1757) where he gave practical advice for people to improve themselves using witticism “Early to Bed, and early to rise, makes a Man healthy, wealthy and wise” (Mur Effing, 2009: 129). He published another book named as The Way to Wealth in 1757 (Starker, 2008: 15) which could be regarded as a self-help work advising people to live according to high values of individual and social ethics. Although some works that could be regarded to have self-help content were written in the 17th century, Autobiography written by Benjamin Franklin is generally considered as one of the self-help classics (Butler-Bowdon, 2003: 145). Franklin strived to show how to live a noble life with the help of self- assessment and the book suggested a practical way for success (Butler- Bowdon, 2003: 145). Autobiography suggested people to live according to thirteen virtues usually known under the title of The Art of Virtue created by Benjamin Franklin. These virtues were temperance, silence, order, resolution, frugality, industry, sincerity, justice, moderation, cleanliness, tranquility, chastity and humility (Butler-Bowdon, 2003: 147). Benjamin Franklin was the pioneer author of self-help literature especially in the 18th century. He had a Puritan background; but combined Puritan values with the thought that an individual could learn to live better and reach to "optimal self" through positive steps and transformations which also serves as the main doctrine of modern self-help. 21 19th century was a turning period for the history of self-help genre in the USA. Although Puritan ideology and religious forms did not lose their importance, individual success and improvement started to flourish through self-help literature. Andrew Jackson elected as a President in 1828 and re-elected in 1832 was considered as a “self-made man” in the USA who had little education and was deprived of a noble social status (Starker, 2008: 16). People in the USA experienced important socio-economic changes in Jacksonian period. Urbanization developed, industrialization accelerated and manufacturing facilities increased (Starker, 2008: 16). Needless to say, these transformations encouraged people to live their lives in compliance with the possibilities and requirements of that time rather than only being strict to moralistic and religious values. Although effects of religious values and Puritan ideals were seen in self-help literature, the genre was more inclined to the definition of self-help theme in modern times within the 19th century than preceding centuries. As a result of industrialization movement, social and economic developments, opening of businesses, new employment opportunities, promotion of city life and similar factors that substantially change the social face of the USA triggered individuals to be more determined and ambitious to have more. These individuals who strived to live in more desired conditions than before naturally needed personal guides promising a better guidance rather than moral guides prevalent in preceding centuries. In the light of industrialization and economic development, wishes to become wealthy, powerful and to live in a comfortable and luxurious life gained importance. The theme of “rags-to-riches” became a vital point in America. 22 Horatio Alger was an important name in the history of self-help genre in the 19th century. Alger wrote approximately 107 books for children which were mostly oriented towards “rags-to-riches” theme. His most remarkable books were Ragged Dick (1867), Luck and Pluck (1869), Sink or Swim (1870) and Tattered Tom (1871) (Starker, 2008: 19). Alger who was a best-selling author at his time, created heroes at the ages of 12-18 and attempted to teach the importance of hard work, honesty, loyalty, generosity, kindness and neatness according to the values of industry and economy in a didactic tone (Cawelti, 1965: 111-121). Another important example of “sanctity of wealth” theme was Gospel of Wealth (1889) written by Andrew Carnegie (Douglas, 1972: 26). Andrew Carnegie was an immigrant who later became the second-richest man in the American history (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_Carnegie) Carnegie could be regarded as an important "millionaire" figure for the people willing to reach their personal ambitions and wishes in accordance with the "rags-to-riches" theme. 19th century showed that the theme of self-improvement could not be separated from social and economic changes and could be possible with the combination of moralistic virtues and individual ambitions. With the contribution of "rags-to- riches" theme, self-help genre attempted to teach people to be successful without losing essential virtues of life. Literature of a country is shaped according to socio-economic and cultural changes experienced in the society. The case of the USA functioned through that theme. Religious and moral guidance that praised social individuals rather than personal ambitions became inadequate for individuals willing to overcome restrictions built by religious teachings. New America having experienced industrialization, urbanization and socio-economic development needed a new way to be satisfied in daily life. Second half of the 19th century witnessed an important turning point; New Thought Movement. It was then clearly understood that mere Puritan values 23 and religious teachings did not offer solutions for the problems of American people (Starker, 2008: 20). People experiencing the development of huge cities, industry and economy realized that they should be powerful, self-sufficient and self-confident in order to survive in that viable and changing order. New Thought was a movement based on mind power appraising spirit and considering the power of mind as an ailment for the body (http://www.religionfacts.com/a-z-religion-index/new_thought.htm). Ralph Waldo Trine, writer of In Tune with the Infinite, or Fullness of Peace, Power and Plenty (1897) was one of the representatives of New Thought Movement (Starker, 2008: 21). Orison Swett Marden, another important writer advocating New Thought Movement, wrote Pushing to the Front (1894), Every Man a King, or, Might in Mind-Mastery (1906) and Peace, Power and Plenty (1909) (Starker, 2008: 22). Power of the mind and inner voice rather than external effects were dominant in the concept of New Thought and it was believed that if people learned to use their minds accurately, they could solve their problems easily. Mind power is praised in New Thought and self-creating becomes the core point that an individual could create himself/herself in a brand new status by using his/her natural potential, that is to say, his/her mind in a positive way in order to reach his/her goals. Schneider and Dornbusch analyze "inspirational religious literature" through the years 1875-1955 in their book entitled Popular Religion-Inspirational Books in America. Contents of 46 bestsellers that are wholly written by Americans are examined in the book. Schneider and Dornbusch see 1930s as a crucial period for the genre and state that faith was adequate for salvation of the individual alone by the mid-1930s; however, concept of reason, psychological and psychiatric methods gained importance together with faith after 1930s (1958: 22-3). More secular themes were observed in the genre after 1930s. Love of God and devotedness to faith alone for a better life began to lose popularity especially in the 20th century beginning from the 1930s. It is underlined that socio-economic and cultural changes affect the flow of literature in a given 24 country. For instance, Schneider and Dornbusch point out that the theme accepting faith as an agent to bring wealth lost its importance in the years of the Great Depression (1958: 33). Personal ambition for gaining wealth and psychological well-being for continuing a more qualified life gained popularity in the depression years (1930s-1940s). The thought as religion or faith alone brings positiveness and inner peace has gradually faded since the 1930s. Making use of the potential of mind for a better life substituted for faith which was seen as an instrument for salvation before. Namely, the effect of religion and faith on self-help began to break in the 2nd half of the 19th century and generally disappeared within the 1st half of the 20th century. The popularity and the number of self-help books increased in the 20th century. Expectations and wishes of people from their daily lives and their country increased and people began to search for possible ways to reach their dreams. “American Dream” which could be defined as freedom involves the opportunity to reach success and prosperity, and social mobility that could be achieved with the help of hard work (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Dream). James Truslow Adams defines American Dream in Epic of America (1931) as follows: The American Dream is that dream of land in which life should be better and richer and fuller for everyone, with opportunity for each according to ability or achievement. It is not a dream of motor cars and high wages merely, but a dream of social order in which each man and each woman shall be able to attain to the fullest stature of which they are innately capable, and be recognized by others for what they are, regardless of the fortuitous circumstances of birth or position. (quoted in Mur Effing, 2009: 127). American people of the 20th century inclined towards a better life with opportunities which would help them to live in a wealthier and more comfortable way. The theme of “rags-to-riches” gained more importance and people regardless of their origin or social status were willing to live according to their lifelong aspirations. People needed applicable formulas for better living conditions. 25 The Great Depression (1929) resulted in a huge damage in the American economy and by 1932 twelve million people lost their jobs (Starker, 2008: 49). The Depression affected the psychology of people negatively and caused disadvantageous social conditions. While those chaotic times were experienced in America, The Second World War broke out (1939-1945) and affected the lives of millions of people both psychologically and economically. It is possible to say that beginning from the second half of the 19th century and especially during the 20th century, particularly after the Second World War, being successful meant being wealthy (Mur Effing, 2009: 129). People adopted more materialistic expectations in compliance with capitalist aspirations. Individuals began to attach themselves to money and material goods. The Empire of Business (1902) written by Andrew Carnegie and Acres of Diamonds (1915) written by Russell H. Conwell are two important books considering wealth as a part of virtue (Mur Effing, 2009: 129) in the beginning of the 20th century. Dale Carnegie, Napoleon Hill and Norman Vincent Peale were the representatives of self-help genre in the United States of America in the first half of the 20th century. Their books became bestsellers throughout the country during a fluctuant and unstable period when American people were experiencing social and economic transformations. Books of these authors were effective as a panacea for Americans in order to solve their daily problems, become successful in business life and gain self-esteem or establish good relations with other people through using their capabilities and inner potential and benefiting from the power of positive thinking. Works of Dale Carnegie, Napoleon Hill and Norman Vincent Peale offered methods, techniques and activities for troubled people to be applied in their lives. It is possible to say that these three authors are the founders of contemporary self-help genre and modern self-help works are based on the system they have created. 26 Self-help literature has become an independent genre in the first half of the 20th century. The genre began to offer prescriptive guidance for Americans and stayed on bestseller lists for long times. People who had to live active and chaotic lives needed quick and easy solutions for their material and psychological problems; and self-help books were there ready to help. This new independent genre achieved success among American readers during this period. For instance, How to Win Friends and Influence People by Dale Carnegie made 250 thousand copies between October, 1936 and February, 1937 (Starker, 2008: 189) which is an important indicator of the popularity of the new genre among American readers at that time. Time was an era of hardships and changes based on industrial movement. Theme of “success” was very important in order to survive in these new circumstances. People would be self-confident and willing to take risks and establish initiatives. New order also required being in close relationships with others for gaining success and making business. People especially in the business world working for long hours and having little leisure time oriented towards step-by-step solutions to gain success and develop their businesses as well as their relations with counterparts. Dale Carnegie, who was also an important lecturer and public speaker, became an important figure as a self-help author in the United States of America, especially in the first half of the 20th century. Dale Carnegie, who changed his surname from Carnegey to Carnegie to resemble the famous millionaire Andrew Carnegie, wrote How to Win Friends and Influence People in 1937 (Starker, 2008: 63). Carnegie offered quick-fix solutions for daily problems experienced by American people and provided guidance for them to reach more prosperous lives. The book became bestseller in a short time and Starker underlines that 1.5 million hardcover copies and 3.5 million paperback copies were sold by 1956 (2008: 63). 27 Carnegie offered rules for his readers and advised them to review these rules until they became habits. He also requested people to analyze their relations with other people. Carnegie then provided a diary at the end of the book for readers to write their accomplishments gained with the help of his rules (Starker, 2008: 65). Including the set of easy rules to be followed and fluency of its content and style made it one of the bestsellers of its time. Valiunas states that it has sold at least 15 million copies and is still a top-selling on the Amazon lists (2010: 85). It is clear that the book was written at a time when effects of the Great Depression were heavily felt throughout the country while industrialization and urbanization period had to be developed for the prosperity of the whole nation. People needed to listen advice and apply useful methods in order to survive in chaotic economic situations during socio-cultural transformations. Carnegie also wrote How to Stop Worrying and Start Living in 1948 (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/How_to_Stop_Worrying_and_Start_Living). The book includes main techniques to analyze despair, seven ways to achieve a peaceful and happy life. It also contains some true stories on the theme of overcoming despair. Carnegie could be regarded as the most influential author who wrote classics of the genre in the 1st half of the 20th century giving way to the modern self-help literature. He is the pioneer of modern self-help authors due to his style and the content of his books. Napoleon Hill is another prominent self-help author of the 20th century who provides the technique for reaching wealth and happiness through positive thinking. He wrote Think and Grow Rich in 1937 (Starker, 2008: 62). The book became another important bestseller making twenty-eight printings in twenty- one years (Starker, 2008: 25). He uses more or less similar expressions and content with the contemporary genre that he offers formulas as in most modern works such as "six ways to turn desires into gold", "six steps to stimulate your subconscious mind" (Cawelti, 1965: 214). Books praising positive thinking and mind power written in the first half of the 20th century such as the ones by Carnegie and Hill have formed the basis for modern self-help literature. The 28 genre overlaps and benefits from previous works in order to flourish and develop. A critical event for the first part of the 20th century is the spread of the thought known as “mind power” and positive thinking. Therefore, psychology and psychiatry became important themes for self-help literature in that period (Starker, 2008: 59). People directed their ways to seek solutions for their problems through their minds and inner voice. Protestant preacher Norman Vincent Peale is the author using “mind power” as the theme of self-help literature especially for achieving success. Peale who had a religious career and background tried to combine religion and psychology in an appropriate way (Anker, 1999: 103). Norman Vincent Peale opened a breakthrough era in the history of self-help literature and his books influenced lives of many Americans. Peale published his first book The Art of Living in 1938 and second book You Can Win in 1939. These works did not sell well; but he wrote his first bestseller A Guide to Confident Living in 1948 (Starker, 2008: 104-05). However, Peale gained great reputation among American people with his book The Power of Positive Thinking. Peale wrote The Power of Positive Thinking in 1952 and the book held its position on bestseller lists for three years. (Anker, 1999: 121). Content of the book is not difficult to follow and understand. Each chapter includes a general difficulty in human life as disappointment, heartache, failure in professional life and so on and Peale offers some dictums to overcome these difficulties while telling some stories based on the lives of troubled people who have applied his advice and seen the benefits (Anker, 1999: 115). The Power of Positive Thinking could be considered as one of the pioneer books of self-help literature within modern times with regard to its style and content. 29 After the success of The Power of Positive Thinking, Peale wrote Stay Alive All Your Life in 1957 which again appeared on bestseller lists (Starker, 2008: 105). Rabbi Joshua L. Liebman was also a self-help author who had a religious background working as a preacher like Norman Vincent Peale. His book Peace of Mind became an important bestseller which sold 242 thousand copies and by 1956 it sold over a million copies, Liebman like Peale suggested in the case that people looked their inner qualities, they could reach peace of mind (Starker, 2008: 59-60). Emphasis on mind was strongly felt through the second half of the 20th century and the theme shows great similarities with self-help genre in modern times. Cawelti suggests that the books How to Win Friends and Influence People (1936) by Dale Carnegie; Think and Grow Rich (1937) by Napoleon Hill and The Power of Positive Thinking (1952) by Norman Vincent Peale have the same theme: success; and every person has the potential to become successful if he/she uses the inner features of his/her character (1965: 209). The emphasis was on the mind power; that is, using the mind according to wants and wishes from the life brings success. Cawelti also states that these three authors mostly concentrated on material success and gave more importance to inner qualities rather than external things (1965: 211-13). Enriching inner life and carefully listening to inner voice became a starting point to be successful in life. Carnegie, Hill, and Peale made their marks on the self-help scene of the 1st half of the 20th century. Puritan ideology and values of Puritanism have been prevalent until the first half of the 20th century (Mur Effing, 2009: 129). However, the second half of the twentieth century in the USA has become the process of individualism that has affected every area of the citizen’s life. Hard work, communication with colleagues and boss have turned into crucial elements to achieve promotion, and inspiration for living in better standards has become the first requirement for happiness. Therefore, people have chosen to be more introverted and indifferent to social relations which are not in favor of their material interests. 30 That's to say, Puritan values praising social order have declined and thought of "individualism" has increased and spread. The emergence of a consumer culture and increasing materialism after World War II encouraged people to become rich quickly and reach all aspirations via easy and quick solutions (Mur Effing, 2009: 131). This process made individualism and selfism more attractive for individuals. Psychologists, Mildred Newman and Bernard Berkowitz wrote a self-help book entitled How to be Your Own Best Friend in the 1970s and the book became the bestseller in 1973, selling two million copies by 1977. Its sixteenth printing was published in 1982 and sold three million (Starker, 2008: 121). As understood from the title, the book offered a good example of individualism and selfist ideology in self-help genre produced within the second half of the 20th century. Another great important book underlying selfist ideology is Your Erroneous Zones written by Wayne W. Dyer in 1976. The book achieved a great success and became a bestseller in the years 1976-7 and sold over four million copies in 1978 (Starker, 2008: 124). Materialism, selfishness, individualism and indifference to thoughts and emotions of others in hectic lives have brought self- help genre which claims to bring happiness to one's life to the center both in individual’s life and bestseller lists in the USA. Materialism, consumerism and individualism are the main concepts that have strong relations with each other. As the person becomes more materialist and begins to incline towards consumerism, the situation prominently has been experienced since 1950s in the USA, he/she becomes more "individual" and prioritizes his/her own needs rather than others; briefly, he/she focuses on surviving himself/herself in the first place. When that approach is combined with busy and stressful lifestyles, people feel themselves to be stuck with daily burdens and responsibilities. Therefore, they want to solve problems encountered in daily life with easy and quick steps because of the fact that they are in a complete hurry. Moreover, individuals who have become accustomed to 31 this method wish to get more and more via the strategies which are offered by someone else as easy and effective methods to be applied by them. Concisely, 1950s could be taken as a period in which socio-cultural transformations have lead people to complex lives continuing in a rush especially in big cities. Harrington states that terms such as rat race and treadmill were derived during the 1950s (quoted in Mur Effing, 2009: 131). 1980s were the years when businesses became larger, people experienced more difficulties at work and became more workaholic. For instance, Duin and Sutcliffe pointed out in their book A History of Medicine published in 1992 that heart diseases became the widespread epidemic and caused 30 percent of deaths in developed countries in the second half of the 20th century and relation between heart disease and workaholic individuals was established by the 1980s (quoted in Mur Effing, 2009: 132). Increasing stress, competitiveness in business life, aspirations to want more and more led people to be trapped in their cages which were made of selfishness, individuality and materialism. People became to be more willing to enrich their physical and emotional lives in the 1980s. Books on health, wealth and diet were as popular as success literature or self-help books on how to enrich one’s individual life. For instance, Craig Claiborne’s Gourmet Diet published in 1980 became one of the bestsellers and The Scarsdale Diet written by Herman Tarnower and Samm Sinclair Baker in 1979 sold over 6.5 million copies by 1981 (Starker, 2008: 133- 4). Citizens who gradually adapted to the conditions of globalization and urbanization, transformations in their occupational lives and social styles, became more interested in their health and physical conditions as well as ambitions to earn more money as in the case of previous periods. Starker correlates the boost of self-help works on physical health in the 1980s with the changing character of the American society. While a typical American family of the 1950s includes a working husband, a wife, and children, type of this household has rarely encountered from the 1980s onwards. 1980s was the 32 time in which single or divorced parents increased, number of working women rose (2009: 139-140), and women obtained economic freedom. Americans began to seek physical advice besides psychological ones from self-help books on exercise, diet and beauty. Being an attractive and healthy person gained the same importance as being happy and relaxed. As mentioned in this study before, socio-cultural changes in a society affect people living in the culture and finally affect literary works which are the products of that culture. NLP (Neuro-linguistic Programming) should not be excluded from the scene of self-help literature from the 1950s onwards. Two academicians Richard Bandler (mathematician) and John Grindler (linguist) have raised the NLP concept in the 1970s (Muslu, 2011: 138). The NLP generally concentrates on role-modeling of individuals who have achieved something in the course of life. The NLP books differ from general self-help materials as per their more scientific and detailed content; but the NLP books are also written for non-professional audience such as other works falling within the category of self-help literature and a simple language is used. Unlimited Power by Anthony Robbins firstly published in 1987 has been written with the NLP concept. Self-help books including quasi- scientific and scientific methods together with the NLP concept have continued to be published in 1990s. For instance, the book NLP: The Technology of Achievement based on NLP teaching of Bandler and Grindler was written by Steve Andreas and Charles Faulkner in 1994 (Mur Effing, 2009: 133). With the inclusion of the NLP books into self-help genre heavily in the 1990s, the genre including numerous topics from positive thinking to time management has added a new and different category to its body. The 1990s was the period when self-help literature reached to an important point and sold millions in the USA. People wanted to develop their inner, daily, social and business lives. Self-help literature came to a point that they were respected as if they were religious works containing doctrines and teachings. They have become the new religion of Americans and then throughout the industrialized world. Men are from Mars, Women are from Venus written by 33 John Gray became a bestseller work in the 1990s and the publisher HarperCollins described John Gray as the best-selling relationship author of all times (Salerno, 2005: 51). Salerno also states that the book has been translated into forty-three languages and became a bestseller even in Bosnia (2005: 51). There was no power to obstruct the huge popularity of self-help literature after the 1990s. Works of self-help literature have begun to appear in the bestseller lists after that time and this fact itself has turned into the biggest evidence of huge acceptance and preference of self-help books by the public. Self-help literature has been definitely accepted as an independent and comprehensive genre since the 1990s. Modern day could be defined as a busy period in which individuals lead stressful lives and get exhausted both physically and psychologically. Reading self-help books has become a compulsory duty rather than a free-time activity for individuals who wish to get out of the rat race of modern times. The self-help book has entered the lives of individuals, especially of the middle class, as a household to which the individual applies in order to get advice. Information technologies have drastically developed from the 1990s onwards. The Internet has begun to be widely used in the 1990s and individuals have obtained the opportunity of easy access to information with one click. Materials of mass media have contributed to the development of self-help genre. The process beginning from the 1990s has become a turning point for self-help. TV shows, CDs, websites, videos; briefly, products of visual media have helped self-help literature to gain much momentum. Dr. Laura Schlessinger, the author of Ten Stupid Things Women Do to Mess Up Their Lives (1994) and other self- help books following the same formula, who was labeled as the most "preordered author" of Amazon.com began to make a radio program as The Doctor Laura Show since 1998 which was ranked as number one of airwaves by Talkers Magazine (Salerno, 2005: 45). Mass media broadcasts works on self-help and self-help literature and the products of the other media benefit 34 from each other, and self-help becomes a huge industry together with all its products. 2000s was the period when self-help industry has boosted with all its components. While Americans have become much more obsessed with self- help genre with lifelong aims of self-improvement, self-confidence and self- reliance, rest of the world, especially the ones embraced the lifestyle of the USA, has been inflicted with the thought of achieving self-reliance through self- help methods. As mentioned above, opportunities provided by mass media have increased the popularity of self-help. The Secret, an international bestseller, written by Rhonda Byrne which is now available in many world languages is offered as an e-book and audio book formats. The Secret is also available as DVD, and DVD form of the book is being sold all over the world and again available in many languages such as Arabic, Chinese, Turkish, Italian and Russian (http://store.thesecret.tv/content/DVDLanguages.htm). People of the 2000s do not seem to put away self-help books and give up following self-help media unless they get out of the hustle and bustle of their lives. Modern day individual who becomes more and more isolated over time will need the products of self-help industry and the industry will boost while offering methods for the individual to survive in his/her life. 2.2. HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF SELF-HELP LITERATURE IN TURKEY Emergence of self-help literature in Turkey dates back to the 1950s which is a later date when compared to the emergence and popularity of the genre in the USA. Some deep situations have led to this delay affecting the entrance of self- help genre into the Turkish literary polysystem. Development of the literature in a country is profoundly related to the development of the society itself. Moreover, it could not be expected from an 35 introverted country that closes her doors to progressive steps and achievements to import new literary genres which have proved their popularity in the rest of the world. Completion of industrialization period is the first process that is required for a country to keep up with the developments of industrialized countries. This industrialization activity actually began in the beginning of the 1960s in Turkey (Kocaman T., Özaltın İ., Gülgör B., 1988: I); while the USA started to industrialize in the late 1700s. Turkey has begun to experience social, cultural and economic changes since 1960s with new business opportunities, new areas for employment and investment facilities. Turkey when compared to the USA could be regarded as a baby country which is crawling to catch up with the pace of the USA and Europe in the field of socio-economic developments. The arguments to support this idea may be developed. For example, 10.344.981 people out of a population of 12.862.754 were illiterate in the first years of the Republic in Turkey and this figure has shown itself as 12.187.323 out of a population of 37.523.682 in the first 60 years following the foundation of the Republic (Kocaman T., Özaltın İ., Gülgör B., 1988: 3). Nobody could expect from a country to enrich its literature, especially its translated literature, where one-third of citizens were illiterate. The ratio of literacy in 1980 reached to 67.45% (Kocaman T., Özaltın İ., Gülgör B., 1988: 6) which is also an insufficient figure for a country that strives to achieve developments in economic and social fields. Literacy is the first criteria to follow advances carried out throughout the world and the main indicator of the developmental level of the related country. Industrialization has led way to socio-economic transformations within the structure of the country. Turkey was a country mainly based on income from agricultural activities in the first years of the Turkish Republic and 83.75% of people were living in rural areas at that time (Kocaman T., Özaltın İ., Gülgör B., 1988: 90). The beginning of industrialization has affected agriculture and agricultural mechanization, and agricultural machines have taken the place of labor force in rural areas and this fact has given way to immigration from rural areas to big cities in search of employment opportunities. Kongar states that 36 although agricultural jobs have remarkable places in labor, they are inclined to decline. For instance, while 66.8% of people were working in agriculture in 1970, the figure declined to 53.6% in 1990. On the other hand, the number of people working in technical field has increased as a result of the development of technical jobs within the industrialization period (2011: 530). Industrilization and urbanization have great relation with each other and in the 1960s, urbanization activities have begun in Turkey with the help of developing industries in big cities. The urbanization period has gained momentum year by year in Turkey. As well as new industries, social facilities such as health, education and cultural opportunities have begun to flourish in cities (Kocaman T., Özaltın İ., Gülgör B., 1988: 91) which have attracted both citizens living in the countryside to migrate to big cities and current citizens of these big cities. Industry has brought sectoral opportunities for the ones migrating to these cities. According to the statistics, while one-fourth of the population was living in cities in the 1960s, approximately one half of the population lived in cities in 1985 (Kocaman T., Özaltın İ., Gülgör B., 1988: 92). More than one half of the population (65%) was living in cities in 1997 and Turkey entered the 2000s with two-thirds of the population living in cities (Kongar, 2011: 549-50). The effects of urbanization have reflected the lives of the citizens throughout the country, big families have begun to separate because of economic factors, women have begun to participate in labor, educational levels of new generations have increased with the help of huge schooling facilities in the cities. New employment opportunities have emerged especially in the service sector and a middle class has begun to develop in big cities. Industrialization is the main factor for social transformation in Turkey. This social transformation has gained momentum and intensity through the industrialization period. This period has transformed the production facilities of society, social structure and institutions (Çalık, 1987: 51). Industrialization and its main result, urbanization, have brought about individualization which is a requirement for industrialized societies. Çalık also suggests that “readiness for transformations” and “adaptation for new ideas” are the features which develop 37 in industrialized societies where developments and institutionalization gain pace (1987: 55). Citizens of industrialized countries begin to transform their life expectations according to their changing lifestyles and look up for ways to adapt themselves to new social changes. Newly developing countries do not have the necessary background for their new structures and they stay in a socially crucial period. This situation could be summarized as “transition period” (Çalık, 1987: 61). It could be estimated that the transition period of Turkey is directed to the West, European countries and the USA which has been a common case since the Ottoman period, especially after the Tanzimat era (1830s). National literatures have also transitional periods. Countries mostly import literary genres especially from other countries which represent a role model for these developing countries. Literatures of young countries naturally begin to flourish with the contribution of countries which have developed literatures. As for Turkey, importation of Western literary genres has gained pace especially after the 1980s as a result of social transformations experienced in the country. Self-help literature is an important genre mainly originating from the USA that has been imported to Turkey. This new genre has fit new Turkey especially after the 1980s and gained huge popularity since 2000. The content and style of self-help books have been suitable for new expectations of the Turkish people who have begun to adapt their lives to European lifestyles with long working hours, way of thinking changed towards individualism, career and educational intentions and inspirations for gaining more, living in bigger houses, driving modern cars etc. The pioneer of self-help literature is Nüvit Osmay in Turkey (Özdemir, 2010: 67). Osmay wrote İnsan Mühendisliği in 1983 which was published by Fahrettin Telseren Yayınları (Özdemir, 2010: 89). İnsan Mühendisliği mentioning about business life, management strategies, managers, relations of people with colleagues and businesses could be regarded as the first classical of original self-help literature. Osmay attended courses on diction in Carnegie Institute in 38 1950 and was also the author who invited Dale Carnegie, modern father of self- help genre in the USA, to deliver a lecture in Turkey in the year 1955 (Özdemir, 2010: 93). It is possible to say that pioneer of self-help literature in the west, Dale Carnegie, has inspired Nüvit Osmay who would then inspire Turkish literary atmosphere to produce works in self-help genre. The publication year of İnsan Mühendisliği is also remarkable that it was a time when Turkey has experienced new developments in business life such that service sector has gained importance in big cities and Turkey has been transformed from an agricultural country to a country that has taken steps in order to develop herself in sectoral businesses, foreign and domestic trade. Newly-built factories especially in big cities have strived to increase their production rates and employment opportunities have begun to intensify in accordance with the development of factories and as a result of sectoral diversity. İnsan Mühendisliği explaining strategies to cope with problems and mentioning about ways to be successful in business life has had the feature of a reference book for the employees and employers who have entered the area of business quite recently. Sezik categorizes self-help adventure of Turkey into three generations. According to this classification, Nüvit Osmay falls into the category of the first generation and is regarded as the pioneer of the concept of self-help literature in Turkey (2000: 165). Nüvit Osmay inspired by Dale Carnegie has deep influences on other generations and as explained before, self-help adventure in Turkey begins with Osmay’s invitation of Carnegie in the 1950s. Second generation of self-help literature in Turkey is represented by the authors Reha Oğuz Türkkan and Mustafa Ruşen. Türkkan and his trainee, Mustafa Ruşen, are the ones who have introduced “speed reading” to Turkish readers (Sezik, 2000: 166). With the contribution of these authors, a new category of self-help genre “speed reading” has begun to be adopted by target readers. Sezik underlines that Türkkan published his first book in the field of speed reading and learning in 1985 (2000: 166). Reha Oğuz Türkkan continued his studies in the USA in the field of speed reading and learning, and became one 39 of the three founders of the technique of Programmed Instruction and took part in the encyclopedia “Who’s Who” published in the USA (http://www.hizliokuma.com/rot.asp). Türkkan has approached the field of self- help with his academic background and supported his studies with scientific data. Türkkan as the pioneer of sub-genre “speed reading” in self-help literature has paved the way for individuals or experts interested in self-help to deliver works in speed reading and books on speed reading have begun to appear on bookshelves since the 1980s. Mustafa Ruşen is the first inspired author studying in the field of “speed reading”. Hızlı Okuma written by Mustafa Ruşen has made its 28th printing in 2012 (http://www.idefix.com/kitap/mustafa- rusen/urun_liste.asp?kid=9593). Today, “speed reading” is a very important issue especially for students studying in our country who compete against time to pass crucial exams such as university entrance exam. Achieving the techniques of speed reading functions in direct proportion to answering more questions in nation-wide exams organized by examination centers under the auspices of the State. Therefore, speed reading books seem to be beneficial for Turkish citizens from different levels and popularity of this sub-genre has resulted from the requirements of the country itself that should be completed by individuals. “Speed reading” is also a requirement for employees and managers in order to reduce intensive workload and keep pace with speedy flow of globalization. Effective speed reading courses and seminars are organized especially in big cities currently in Turkey. The third generation of self-help literature includes the authors Doğan Cüceloğlu, Oğuz Saygın, Turgay Biçer, Cengiz Eren, Mümin Sekman and Tamer Dövücü (Sezik, 2000: 166-173). Increasing number of self-help authors in the third generation (1990s) shows that self-help literature has gradually been read and accepted as an independent genre in the Turkish literary polysystem by the Turkish audience. Changing socio-economic scene of the country in the 1990s has contributed to the popularity of self-help genre. While the populace has begun to incline towards individualism, they have started to search for and 40 find ways to enrich their individual lives with the contribution of self-help methods. Özdemir suggests that Doğan Cüceloğlu is the first author who used the concept of “self-help” in his books after the 1980s (2010: 67). The 1990s is the vital period when the concept of self-help has begun to embrace individuals and self-help books have become reference books for the public seeking assistance for their problems in that period. Cüceloğlu wrote many books for the audience putting “individual” into the centre. His well-known books are İnsan ve Davranışı (1991), Yeniden İnsan İnsana (1991), İçimizdeki Çocuk (1992), İyi Düşün Doğru Karar Ver (1993), Yetişkin Çocuklar (1994), İçimizdeki Biz (1996) and Anlamlı ve Coşkulu bir Yaşam İçin Savaşçı (1999) (Sezik, 2000: 30). Cüceloğlu also attached great importance to “effective communication” which could be regarded as an important sub-genre of self-help literature and wrote İletişim Donanımları: Keşkesiz Bir Yaşam için İletişim in 2002 and the book made its 40th printing after ten years in 2012 (http://www.kitapyurdu.com/kitap/default.asp?id=66620&sa=118117186#Scene _1). This is a good clue for understanding the increasing popularity of self-help genre in Turkey. Self-help literature has gradually become one of the genres located at the centre of the literary polysystem in Turkey. Cüceloğlu supports his studies on self-help with a TV program entitled Doğan Cüceloğlu ile İnsan İnsana. The program currently displays on one of the national TV channels on Sundays at primetime and hosts celebrities, self-help authors or authors writing on other genres known by the public. Dialogue between partners, education of children, sense of responsibility, limitations that hinder people in their lives and similar subjects are discussed in the program. Self-help programs and self-help literature could be taken as the components of the same aim of guiding people to shape their lives according to some instructions which are seen to be beneficial for enriching their inner and outer lives. NLP, probably the most comprehensive and broadest sub-genre of self-help literature, has entered into the Turkish literary polysystem in the 1990s. Oğuz 41 Saygın, Cengiz Eren, Turgay Biçer and Tamer Dövücü have become the pioneers of the approach entitled as neuro-linguistic programming (NLP) in Turkey. While the audience of the USA firstly discovered NLP in the 1970s, Turkish readers have come across NLP at a later date following an approximately 20 years of delay. The concept of NLP introduced by Richard Bandler and John Grindler was imported to Turkey by the Turkish authors inspired by prominent self-help authors writing books on NLP in the USA. For instance, Oğuz Saygın defines his reading of Unlimited Power written by Anthony Robbins as his rebirth in his book Negatif Limanlardan Pozitif Sulara (Sezik, 2002: 147). After being inspired by Anthony Robbins, Saygın produced works on NLP. His popular books are Negatif Limanlardan Pozitif Sulara, Değişim Rüzgarları, Kişisel Gelişim Stratejileri and Hafıza Teknikleriyle Beyin Gücünü Geliştirme, Etkili İletişimin 6 Yolu, Hayvanlar Dünyasından Düşündüren Öyküler, and Akıllı Hafıza (Sezik, 2000: 107; http://www.sayginsaygin.com/). Books of Saygın on memory techniques could be taken as pioneers of the sub-genre "memory techniques" in self-help literature in Turkey. Turgay Biçer, another author who has books on NLP, was a trainee of John Saymour who is a pioneer NLP trainer and he studied in the University of NLP located in the USA (Sezik, 2000: 169). After his studies on NLP, he shared his experiences and knowledge with Turkish readers. His books are entitled Şampiyonluğun Psikolojisi, Daha Zeki Daha Cesur, Doruk Performans, NLP- Kişisel Liderlik and Kazanmak Beyinde Başlar (http://www.turgaybicer.com/kitaplar.html). Biçer supported the achievement of his books with his seminars and conferences on NLP. Sezik states that NLP: Neuro Linguistics Programming: The New Art and Science of Getting What You Want written by Harry Alder was translated into Turkish with the efforts of Turgay Biçer and Biçer also undertook the editorship of the book, and the book has become the first published book in Turkish on NLP (2000: 169). These efforts to introduce the Turkish audience to self-help books on the subject of NLP have continued with an increasing momentum and 42 importation of NLP books especially from the USA has gained pace. NLP works have entered into the literary system of Turkey via translations from English. Translated works then have inspired original authors to produce books on the sub-genre of NLP. Books of national authors on NLP have contributed to the development of NLP literature in Turkey and NLP books have become some of the crucial products of self-help literature encountered in the libraries and on the bookshelves in 1990s and 2000s. Another author who has contributed to the adaptation of NLP concept in Turkey in the 1990s is Cengiz Eren. Like Saygın and Biçer, Eren conducted studies on NLP and he was a trainee of Richard Bandler, one of two founders of NLP concept (Sezik, 2000: 170). As an author with a certificate on NLP, Eren has a book entitled İçerik Sizi Düşünmek. The front cover of the book includes remarkable writing of NLP and its explanation as “Neuro Linguistic Programming” which gives clues about the content. Tamer Dövücü is also one of the pioneer authors who used the concept of NLP in his books. Türkiye’den NLP ve Sibernetik Uygulamaları 1 (1999) is the famous book of Dövücü mentioning about the lives of four people coming from different social backgrounds in Turkey. Sezik states that Dövücü was the editor of the journal entitled Kişisel Gelişim ve Değişim Dergisi firstly published in February, 2000 (2000: 172). The journal occupies an important place in the history of self-help literature in Turkey, because it was the first journal which regarded self-help as an independent genre and published articles merely on this genre. Despite the fact that Kişisel Gelişim ve Değişim Dergisi published by Beyaz Yayınları had a short publication period; it included lots of opinions and writings of experts dealing with self-help and espe