Hacettepe University Graduate School of Social Sciences  

Department of Translation and Interpreting 

 

 

 

VOLUNTEERISM CHARACTERISTIC FOR EMERGENCY AND 

DISASTER INTERPRETING: TÜRKİYE EXPERIENCE 

 

 

 

 

Ahmet Furkan KARAASLAN 

 

 

 

 

Master’s Thesis 

 

 

 

 

Ankara, 2023 

 

 



 
 

 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 



 
 

 
 

VOLUNTEERISM CHARACTERISTIC FOR EMERGENCY AND DISASTER 

INTERPRETING: TÜRKİYE EXPERIENCE 

 

 

 

 

 

Ahmet Furkan KARAASLAN 

 

 

 

 

Hacettepe University Graduate School of Social Sciences 

Department of Translation and Interpreting 

 

 

 

 

Master’s Thesis 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Ankara, 2023 

 



i 
 

 
 

KABUL VE ONAY 

Ahmet Furkan Karaaslan  tarafından hazırlanan “Volunteerism Characteristic For Emergency 

And Disaster Interpreting: Türkiye Experience” (Acil Durum Ve Afet Çevirmenliği Bağlamında 

Gönüllülük Niteliği: Türkiye Deneyimi) başlıklı bu çalışma, 24.10.2023 tarihinde yapılan 

savunma sınavı sonucunda başarılı bulunarak jürimiz tarafından Yüksek Lisans Tezi olarak 

kabul edilmiştir.  

 

 

Prof. Dr. Aslı Özlem TARAKÇIOĞLU (Başkan) 

 

 

 

Prof. Dr. Aymil DOĞAN (Danışman) 

 

 

 

Doç. Dr. Hilal ERKAZANCI DURMUŞ (Üye) 

 

 

Yukarıdaki imzaların adı geçen öğretim üyelerine ait olduğunu onaylarım. 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Prof.Dr. Uğur ÖMÜRGÖNÜLŞEN 

Enstitü Müdürü 

 



ii 
 

 
 

YAYIMLAMA VE FİKRİ MÜLKİYET HAKLARI BEYANI 

Enstitü tarafından onaylanan lisansüstü tezimin tamamını veya herhangi bir kısmını, basılı 

(kağıt) ve elektronik formatta arşivleme ve aşağıda verilen koşullarla kullanıma açma iznini 

Hacettepe Üniversitesine verdiğimi bildiririm. Bu izinle Üniversiteye verilen kullanım hakları 

dışındaki tüm fikri mülkiyet haklarım bende kalacak, tezimin tamamının ya da bir bölümünün 

gelecekteki çalışmalarda (makale, kitap, lisans ve patent vb.) kullanım hakları bana ait olacaktır. 

Tezin kendi orijinal çalışmam olduğunu, başkalarının haklarını ihlal etmediğimi ve tezimin tek 

yetkili sahibi olduğumu beyan ve taahhüt ederim. Tezimde yer alan telif hakkı bulunan ve 

sahiplerinden yazılı izin alınarak kullanılması zorunlu metinleri yazılı izin alınarak kullandığımı 

ve istenildiğinde suretlerini Üniversiteye teslim etmeyi taahhüt ederim. 

Yükseköğretim Kurulu tarafından yayınlanan “Lisansüstü Tezlerin Elektronik Ortamda 

Toplanması, Düzenlenmesi ve Erişime Açılmasına İlişkin Yönerge” kapsamında tezim 

aşağıda belirtilen koşullar haricince YÖK Ulusal Tez Merkezi / H.Ü. Kütüphaneleri Açık Erişim 

Sisteminde erişime açılır. 

o Enstitü / Fakülte yönetim kurulu kararı ile tezimin erişime açılması mezuniyet 

tarihimden itibaren 2 yıl ertelenmiştir. (1) 

o Enstitü / Fakülte yönetim kurulunun gerekçeli kararı ile tezimin erişime açılması 

mezuniyet tarihimden itibaren  ….. ay ertelenmiştir. (2) 

o Tezimle ilgili gizlilik kararı verilmiştir. (3) 

    ……/………/……  

 

Ahmet Furkan KARAASLAN 

 

“Lisansüstü Tezlerin Elektronik Ortamda Toplanması, Düzenlenmesi ve Erişime Açılmasına İlişkin Yönerge”  

(1) Madde 6. 1. Lisansüstü tezle ilgili patent başvurusu yapılması veya patent alma sürecinin devam etmesi 

durumunda, tez danışmanının önerisi ve enstitü anabilim dalının uygun görüşü üzerine enstitü veya 

fakülte yönetim kurulu iki yıl süre ile tezin erişime açılmasının ertelenmesine karar verebilir.   

 

(2) Madde 6. 2. Yeni teknik, materyal ve metotların kullanıldığı, henüz makaleye dönüşmemiş veya patent gibi 

yöntemlerle korunmamış ve internetten paylaşılması durumunda 3. şahıslara veya kurumlara haksız kazanç 

imkanı oluşturabilecek bilgi ve bulguları içeren tezler hakkında tez danışmanının önerisi ve enstitü anabilim 

dalının uygun görüşü üzerine enstitü veya fakülte yönetim kurulunun gerekçeli kararı ile altı ayı aşmamak 

üzere tezin erişime açılması engellenebilir. 

 

 

(3) Madde 7. 1. Ulusal çıkarları veya güvenliği ilgilendiren, emniyet, istihbarat, savunma ve güvenlik, sağlık vb. 

konulara ilişkin lisansüstü tezlerle ilgili gizlilik kararı, tezin yapıldığı kurum tarafından verilir *. Kurum ve 

kuruluşlarla yapılan işbirliği protokolü çerçevesinde hazırlanan lisansüstü tezlere ilişkin gizlilik kararı ise, ilgili 

kurum ve kuruluşun önerisi ile enstitü veya fakültenin uygun görüşü üzerine üniversite yönetim kurulu 

tarafından verilir. Gizlilik kararı verilen tezler Yükseköğretim Kuruluna bildirilir.  

Madde 7.2. Gizlilik kararı verilen tezler gizlilik süresince enstitü veya fakülte tarafından gizlilik kuralları 

çerçevesinde muhafaza edilir, gizlilik kararının kaldırılması halinde Tez Otomasyon Sistemine yüklenir. 
 

* Tez danışmanının önerisi ve enstitü anabilim dalının uygun görüşü üzerine enstitü veya fakülte 

yönetim kurulu tarafından karar verilir. 

 



iii 
 

 
 

ETİK BEYAN 

Bu çalışmadaki bütün bilgi ve belgeleri akademik kurallar çerçevesinde elde ettiğimi, 

görsel, işitsel ve yazılı tüm bilgi ve sonuçları bilimsel ahlak kurallarına uygun olarak 

sunduğumu, kullandığım verilerde herhangi bir tahrifat yapmadığımı, yararlandığım 

kaynaklara bilimsel normlara uygun olarak atıfta bulunduğumu, tezimin kaynak gösterilen 

durumlar dışında özgün olduğunu, Prof.Dr.Aymil DOĞAN danışmanlığında tarafımdan 

üretildiğini ve Hacettepe Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Tez Yazım Yönergesine göre 

yazıldığını beyan ederim. 

 

Ahmet Furkan KARAASLAN 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 



iv 
 

 
 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 

First of all, I would like to express my gratitude to Prof. Dr. Aymil DOĞAN for 

her invaluable guidance and encouragement throughout the course of this 

thesis. I would like to express my deepest appreciation for her comments on 

this thesis which enabled the completion of the present study.  

I owe special thanks to Prof. Dr. Alev BULUT and Assoc. Prof. Dr. Hilal 

ERKAZANCI DURMUŞ for their support and recommendations about my thesis 

and especially to Prof. Dr. Turgay KURULTAY who helped me reach out to the 

members of ARÇ and acted as a guide whenever I spoke with him about my 

thesis.  

I am also grateful to The Scientific and Technological Research Council of 

Türkiye (TÜBİTAK) for the scholarship and financial aid which it has been 

provided for two years to further my academic study.  

I must thank my friend, Onur MECİT, who always motivated me positively and 

held my hand whenever I needed courage, motivation and help for my thesis. 

I owe another special thanks to Merve GÜZHAN, who was always with me 

during the study. She always answered her phone even if she knew I needed 

help with the thesis. She also provided me support so great that no friends of 

mine could ever do that for me. 

Finally, a very special thank goes to my dear family membersAynur 

KARAASLAN, Ömer KARAASLAN and Kaan KARAASLAN who provided me 

with wholehearted moral support in every aspect of life without hesitation. 

Thanks to their sincere words, support and encouragement, I have been able to 

complete this thesis. 



v 
 

 
 

ÖZET 

KARAASLAN, Ahmet Furkan. Acil Durum Ve Afet Çevirmenliği Bağlamında 

Gönüllülük Niteliği: Türkiye Deneyimi, Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Ankara, 2023. 

Afetler, hükümetlerin, yerel imkanlar kullanarak başa çıkamadığı, insan hayatı, 

ekonomi, kültürel varlıklar kapsamında yıkıcı etkileri olan doğal veya insan 

yapımı olaylardır.Afet, büyük çaplı kayıplarayol açmaktadır ve bu nedenle afetin 

gerçekleştiği yerde arama kurtarma operasyonları, ilk yardım hizmetleri,yardım 

malzemesi dağıtılması gibi eylemler hayati önem taşımaktadır. Ayrıca, afetler, 

insanlarda vicdani ve ahlaki yükümlülükler doğurmakla birlikte hem ulusal hem 

de uluslararası yardımlaşmayı gerektirir.Bu kapsamda, özellikle arama kurtarma 

operasyonlarının bağlamında afetin oluştuğu ülkelere, uluslararası seviyede 

yardım gönderilebilir. Söz konusu yardımlar, ülkelerin eliyle yapılabileceği gibi 

uluslararası sivil toplum kuruluşları tarafından gönüllülük esasıyla da yapılabilir. 

Söz konusu grupların veya sivil toplum kuruluşlarının gönderildikleri afet 

bölgesindeki yerel yönetimler ile dil engeli olmadan iletişim kurabilmesi,söz 

konusu operasyon ve yardımların gerçekleştirilebilmesi için elzemdir.Bu durum, 

Türkiye’de çok fazla can kaybına neden olan 1999 Marmara depremlerinde 

kendini bariz bir şekilde göstermiştir. Dil engelinin fark edilmesi sonrasında afet 

durumlarındayabancı arama kurtarma ekipleri ile iletişimi sağlamak üzere 

gönüllülük esasına dayalı olarak Afette Rehber Çevirmenlik (ARÇ) 

Organizasyonukurulmuştur. İlk kurulduğunda afet durumlarıiçin söz konusu 

hizmeti vermeyi amaçlayan ARÇ, zamanla acil durumları da çalışma alanına 

katmıştır. Söz konusu organizasyon bünyesinde, İstanbul’da başlayıp Ankara, 

İzmir, Sakarya’da da, İstanbul, Hacettepe, Dokuz Eylül ve Sakarya 

Üniversiteleri nezdinde eğitimler verilmiştir. Bu tez, afet ve acil durumlarda 

gereken gönüllülük duygusunun ARÇ Organizasyonuna katılan bireylerde 

olması gerektiğinden hareketle gönüllülük olgusunun altını çizmekte ve ARÇ 

Organizasyonu kapsamında eğitimlere çeşitli düzeylerde katılmış olan bireylerin 

gönüllülük anlayışlarına açıklık getirmeyi konu edinmektedir.  

 

Anahtar Sözcükler: Acil Durum ve Afet Çevirmenliği, ARÇ, Sözlü Çeviri, Gönüllülük, 

Gönüllülük Motivasyonu 



vi 
 

 
 

ABSTRACT 

KARAASLAN, Ahmet Furkan. Volunteerism Characteristic for Emergency And Disaster 

Interpreting: Türkiye Experience, Master’s Thesis, Ankara, 2023. 

Disasters are natural or man-made events that have devastating effects on 

human life, economy, and cultural assets that governments cannot cope with 

using local resources. Disaster causes large-scale losses, therefore actions 

such as search and rescue (SAR) operations, first aid services, and distribution 

of aid materials are vital in the place where the disaster occurs. In addition, 

disasters create and moral obligations in people and lead both to national and 

international cooperation. In this context, international aid can be sent to 

countries where disasters occur, especially in the context of SAR operations. 

The aid aforementioned can be provided by countries or by international non-

governmental organizations (NGOs) on a voluntary basis. It is essential for 

groups or NGOs in question to be able to communicate with the local 

governments in disaster area to which they are sent, without language barriers, 

in order to carry out the operations and assistance. This situation clearly 

demonstrateditself in the 1999 Marmara earthquakes, which caused a lot of loss 

of life in Turkey. After realizing the language barrier, Emergency and Disaster 

Interpreting (ARÇ) Organization was established on volunteering basis to 

ensure communication with foreign search and rescue teams and first aid teams 

in disaster situations. ARÇ, which aimed to provide this service for disaster 

situations when it was first established, has also included emergency situations 

in its scope of work later. Within the scope of the organization, trainings were 

providedfirstin Istanbul, followed by Ankara, and then Izmir and Sakarya, at 

İstanbul, Hacettepe, Dokuz Eylül and Sakarya Universities, respectively. This 

thesis underlines issue of volunteering, considering that individuals participating 

in ARÇ organization must have necessary sense of volunteering in disasters 

and emergencies, and aims to clarify the volunteering understanding of 

individuals who have participated in the trainings at various levels within the 

scope of ARÇ Organization. 

 

 



vii 
 

 
 

Keywords  

Emergency and Disaster Interpreting, ARÇ, Interpreting, Volunteerism, Volunteerism 

Motivation 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 



viii 
 

 
 

TABLE OF CONTENTS 

KABUL VE ONAY ............................................................................................... i 

YAYIMLAMA VE FİKRİ MÜLKİYET HAKLARI BEYANI ................................... ii 

ETİK BEYAN ..................................................................................................... iii 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................. iv 

ÖZET .................................................................................................................. v 

ABSTRACT ....................................................................................................... vi 

TABLE OF CONTENTS .................................................................................. viii 

LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................. xii 

LIST OF FIGURES .......................................................................................... xiii 

INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................ 1 

CHAPTER 1: THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ................................................. 10 

1.1. COMMUNICATION DURING DISASTERS ....................................... 10 

1.1.1. Communication in Terms of Ensuring Coordination Between 

Institutions ............................................................................................. 11 

1.1.2. Communication in Increasing Community Disaster Awareness .. 12 

1.2. INTERPRETING ................................................................................ 12 

1.2.1. What is Interpreting? ................................................................... 13 

1.2.2. The History of Interpreting ........................................................... 15 

1.2.3. The History of Modern Time Interpreting ..................................... 18 

1.3. THE TYPES OF INTERPRETING ..................................................... 25 

1.3.1. Types of Interpreting ................................................................... 25 

1.3.2. Sight interpreting ......................................................................... 26 

1.3.3. Simultaneous Interpreting ........................................................... 27 

1.3.4. Consecutive Interpreting ............................................................. 30 

1.3.5. Escort Interpreting ....................................................................... 33 



ix 
 

 
 

1.3.6. Community Interpreting ............................................................... 34 

1.3.7. Emergency and Disaster Interpreting (ARÇ) ............................... 37 

1.3.8. Healthcare Interpreting ................................................................ 40 

1.3.9. Court Interpreting ........................................................................ 41 

1.4. VOLUNTEERISM .............................................................................. 42 

1.4.1. What is Volunteerism? ................................................................ 42 

1.4.2. Volunteerism From Various Perspectives ................................... 44 

1.4.3. Volunteerism From Various Aspects ........................................... 49 

1.4.4. International Studies on Volunteer Motivation ............................. 51 

1.4.4.1. Two or Three Subscale Models ............................................ 52 

1.4.4.2. One-Dimensional Model ....................................................... 53 

1.4.4.3. Multi-Subscale Model ............................................................ 54 

1.4.5. Formal and Informal Volunteerism .............................................. 59 

1.4.5.1. Formal Volunteerism .............................................................. 59 

1.4.5.2. Informal Volunteerism ............................................................. 60 

1.4.6. Cultural Differences in Volunteerism ........................................... 61 

1.4.7. Volunteerism in Türkiye and Abroad: Differences and     

Similarities ............................................................................................. 62 

CHAPTER 2: METHODOLOGY ....................................................................... 65 

2.1. DESIGN OF THE STUDY.................................................................. 65 

2.1.1. Design of the Study ..................................................................... 65 

2.1.2. Participants ................................................................................. 65 

2.1.3. Data Collection Materials ............................................................ 66 

2.2. DATA ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES ..................................................... 67 

2.3. PROCEDURE .................................................................................... 67 

CHAPTER 3: FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION................................................... 69 



x 
 

 
 

3.1. ANALYSIS OF THE DATA ............................................................... 69 

3.2. FINDINGS ......................................................................................... 70 

3.2.1. Frequency and Percentage Distribution of Participants by Group 

Variable ................................................................................................. 71 

3.2.2. Frequency and Percentage Participants by Age Range .............. 71 

3.2.3. Frequency and Percentage Distribution of Participants By Year of 

Organization .......................................................................................... 72 

3.2.4. The Data on the Reason for Quitting the Organization ............... 72 

3.2.5. Frequency and Percentage Distribution of the Participants by 

Living in the Earthquake Zone............................................................... 73 

3.2.6. Frequency and Percentage Distribution of the Participants' 

Families by Living Status in the Earthquake Zone ................................ 74 

3.2.7. Descriptive Statistics for VMI Scales Ranked in Order of 

Importance – All Sample (Group 1, Group 2, Group 3) ......................... 74 

3.2.8. Descriptive Statistics for VMI Scales Ranked in Order of 

Importance – Group 1 ........................................................................... 76 

3.2.9. Descriptive Statistics for VMI Scales Ranked in Order of 

Importance – Group 2 ........................................................................... 77 

3.2.10. Descriptive Statistics for VMI Scales Ranked in Order of 

Importance –  Group 3 .......................................................................... 78 

3.2.11. t-Test Results for Independent Samples on Motivation Scale 

Scores by Groups 1(Basic training) and Group 2 (Face to Face/ Online 

training) ................................................................................................. 79 

3.2.12. t-Test Results for Independent Samples Regarding the 

Motivation Scale Scores According to the Training and No- Training 

Participants ........................................................................................... 81 

3.2.13. One-Way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) Results of Motivation 

Scale Scores by    Groups .................................................................... 83 

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS ................................................... 85 



xi 
 

 
 

BIBLIOGRAPHY .............................................................................................. 93 

APPENDIX 1. VOLUNTEERS MOTIVATION INVENTORY (VMI) ................. 104 

APPENDIX 2. PERSONAL INFORMATION QUESTIONS ............................ 106 

APPENDIX 3. Approval Mail from the creators of the VMI ......................... 104 

APPENDIX 4. VOLUNTEER CONSENT FORM ............................................. 111 

APPENDIX 5. ETHICS COMMITTEE APPROVAL ........................................ 113 

APPENDIX 6.THESIS/ DISSERTATION ORIGINALITY REPORT ................ 114 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 



xii 
 

 
 

LIST OF TABLES 

Table 1. The Training Groups of ARÇ and Scales Used in the Study .............. 65 

Table 2. Normality Statistics Obtained from Scales .......................................... 70 

The table presented below provides information about the statistical data of the 

participants of the study. ................................................................................... 71 

Table 3. Frequency and Percentage Distribution of Participants by Group 

Variable ............................................................................................................. 71 

Table 4. Frequency and Percentage Participants by Age Range ..................... 71 

Table 5. Frequency and Percentage Distribution of Participants by Year of 

Organization...................................................................................................... 72 

Table 6. Frequency and Percentage Distribution of the Participants by Living in 

the Earthquake Zone ........................................................................................ 73 

Table 7. Frequency and Percentage Distribution of the Participants' Families by 

Living Status in the Earthquake Zone ............................................................... 74 

Table 8.  Descriptive Statistics for VMI Scales Ranked in Order of Importance – 

All Sample (Group 1, Group 2, Group 3) ........................................................... 75 

Table 9. Descriptive Statistics for VMI Scales Ranked in Order of Importance – 

Group 1 ............................................................................................................. 76 

Table 10. Descriptive Statistics for VMI Scales Ranked in Order of Importance – 

Group 2 ............................................................................................................. 77 

Table 11. Descriptive Statistics for VMI Scales Ranked in Order of Importance –  

Group 3 ............................................................................................................. 78 

Table 12. t-Test Results for Independent Samples on Motivation Scale Scores 

by Groups 1(Basic training) and Group 2 (Face to Face/ Online training .......... 80 

Table 13. t-Test Results for Independent Samples Regarding the Motivation 

Scale Scores According to the Training and No- Training Participants ............. 82 

Table 14. One-Way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) Results of Motivation Scale 

Scores by Groups ............................................................................................. 83 



xiii 
 

 
 

LIST OF FIGURES 

Figure 1. Reasons for Quitting the Organization .............................................. 73 

 

 

 

 



1 
 

 
 

INTRODUCTION 

Introduction part consists of the importance of communication in emergency 

situations, definitions of ARÇ and volunteerism, the aim of the thesis, research 

questions, assumptions, and limitations. 

Disasters are natural or man-made events that have devastating effects on 

human life, economy, and cultural assets that governments cannot cope with 

using local resources.A number of variables, including man-made and natural 

risks, can result in disasters (IFCR, https://www.ifrc.org/our-work/disasters-

climate-and-crises/what-disaster). Occuring throughout the world, no country is 

totally safe from the consequences of this phenomenon which can not only 

cause a lot of loss of life but also long-term economic damage in a country. The 

natural events mentioned above are called natural disasters, which include 

avalanches, flood,cold wave, drought, earthquake, hail, heat wave, hurricane, 

ice storm, landslide,lightning, riverine flooding, strong wind, tornado, 

tsunami,volcanic activity,wild fire and winter weather(Federal Emergency 

Management Agency (FEMA-https://hazards.fema.gov/nri/natural-

hazards).According to a research regardingthe global number of deaths as a 

resultof natural disasters in 2018, natural disasters affected 61.7 million people, 

caused 10 373 deaths (Review of Disaster Events, 2018).Thesefiguresshow the 

impact of natural disasters taking place in the world.  

Almost every country in the world is prone to the effects of the natural disasters 

according to the figures mentioned above. Türkiye, in addition to being a part of 

Alp-Himalayan orogenic system with high mountain ranges, is situated in one of 

the most active regions in the world in terms of seismic activity, thus, has a long 

history of a type of natural disaster: earthquakes (Erdik, Biro, Onur, Sesetyan, 

Birgören, 1999, p.1225). These earthquakes had great impacts on Türkiye. “It is 

known that Türkiye has two critical and continuous active zones within its 

boundaries,the first is called the North Anatolian Fault Zone and the second the 

East Anatolian Fault zone” (İspir, Işıkara, and Özden, 1976, p.142). Being 

among the seven regions of Türkiye which are Aegean, Black Sea, Central 

https://www.ifrc.org/our-work/disasters-climate-and-crises/what-disaster
https://www.ifrc.org/our-work/disasters-climate-and-crises/what-disaster


2 
 

 
 

Anatolia, Eastern Anatolia, Marmara, Mediterranean, and Southeastern 

Anatolia, Marmara region, which stands at the intersection point of Turkish, 

Aegean, and Eurasian Plates, is prone to earthquakes (Crampin, Üçer, 1976, 

p.269). The severity of the earthquakes varies according to the magnitude of 

the earthquake. The earthquakes having occurred in Marmara region on 

August, 17th and November 12th, 1999 are notorious experiences of this natural 

phenomenon with the casuality figures of 17,479 deaths and 43,953 

injuriesrespectively(Erek, et.al., 2002: 33).The magnitude of the earthquake was 

so high that it triggered regional seismic activity even in the neighboring 

country, Greece, which shows the power of the earthquake (Brodsky, 

Karakostas, and Kanamori, 2000, 2741). According to Disaster and Emergency 

Presidency (AFAD), Türkiye ranks the third regarding the number of people who 

have lost their lives due to earthquakes and 8th in terms of the number of 

people that have been affected by the damage of these destructive 

mechanisms (www.afad.gov.tr/en).Public awareness of the value of volunteers 

and nonprofit organizations in disaster response and recovery operations was 

heightened by the 1999 Marmara Earthquake in Türkiye. Many individuals and 

groups came forward to assist those in need after the earthquake (Karanci, N. 

A.& Acarturk. 2005, p.318). This incident marked a turning point in Türkiye’s 

disaster management strategy as the Turkish Red Crescent increased its 

emphasis on the importance of volunteers in disaster planning, response, and 

recovery (Türk Kızılay, Marmara earthquake: 20 years on, 2019). 

The Marmara earthquakes also showed that Türkiye needed to improve itself in 

providing interpreting service for foreign search and rescue teams. This need 

was a clear indicator that professionalism and organization were lacking for 

providing such help (Kurultay,Bulut 2001, p.1).One of the most important 

aspects of the 1999 earthquakes is the fact that the preparation level of Türkiye 

for a disaster situation was far below enough and thus SAR teams from other 

countries were, apparently and naturally, received with open arms. The main 

problem with these SAR teams was that Türkiye did not have any specifically 

trained interpreter groups to mediate the communication between local 

authorities and these SAR teams during a disaster; thus, anybody regardless of 



3 
 

 
 

their proficiency level with any foreign language was welcomed to provide 

assistance and make the communication with SAR teams possible (Doğan, 

Kahraman, 2012, p.63). After the Marmara earthquakes and the realization of 

the need for interpreters,academicians of Istanbul University and A. Doğan from 

Hacettepe University as well as the students affected by the earthquake 

gathered in İstanbul University and the events of the 1999 Marmara earthquake 

were discussed. As a result, it became clear that there was a need for training 

to eliminate the language barrier in disasters, and in this context, a triadic 

cooperationcomprised of the Department of Translation Studies of Istanbul 

University representing the academia,Translation Association representing the 

non-governmental organizationand Istanbul Governorship of Civil Defence 

representing the State, signed a protocol in 2001to launch a system that wil 

enable the training of interpreters to operate during the disaster situations within 

an institutionalized structure (Doğan, Kahraman, 2011: 64; Doğan, 2012, Doğan 

2016, p.64).Initially, the acronym IAD (Interpreter in Aid at Disasters) was used 

to refer to the newly established organization. However, in time,the word IAD 

has been abandoned for ARÇ.Over time, the scope of the organization 

broadened to encompass the provision of interpreting services in crisis 

situations, and the acronym ARÇ was adopted to refer to the organization in all 

languages (Doğan, 2016, p.61;Bulutand Kurultay, 2001).Interpreting services 

for foreign search and rescue and relief teams operating in a nation as part of 

international disaster and emergency aid are referred to as ARÇ, which aimed 

to train interpreters to provide such aid (Kurultay, 2012, p.75).The main 

objective of the trainingwas to offer interpretation and translation services to 

search and rescue teams so that they can communicate with relevant officials in 

the host nation both before and after their arrival and while conducting search 

and rescue operations (Doğan, Kahraman, 2011, p.65). The initial trainings 

began in Istanbul University and soon after, a number of other colleges eager to 

provide ARÇ training. Later on, Okan, Sakarya, Dokuz Eylül, and Onsekiz Mart 

Universities joined the group of leading volunteers. Thus, this non-governmental 

voluntary training has been carried out in Istanbul for 16 years, Ankara for 15 

years, İzmir for 13 years and Çanakkale for 11years (Doğan, 2016, p. 



4 
 

 
 

63).Initially, there were two types of trainings which were the Basic Training 

group, who receive 100 hours long training including geomorphology, 

information on buildings and what earthquakes cause on them, what the other 

disasters are and how they occur, psychology, trauma, and Volunteers 

Seminars, which provide shorter and more generalized information for the 

volunteering interpreters about the Basic Training (Doğan, Kahraman, 2011, 

p.66;  Doğan, 2016, p.67). Another group was added to the inventory of ARÇ, 

which consisted of people who hadn’t received any of the trainings mentioned 

above but stayed ready to volunteer in case of a disaster. The contact details of 

these volunteers were added to the ARÇ volunteers list, which ultimately 

created three volunteering groups within ARÇ (Doğan, Kahraman, 2011, p.62). 

The communication service provided by the people who were proficient in 

foreign languages was based on a publicly known notion: volunteerism. 

Volunteerism is a culture-bound concept,which makes it unique for different 

cultures.Volunteerism is defined as “the participation without any pressure, to 

the activities and actions for the public good in which monetary prize is not the 

prioritized motivation source.” (UNV, 2015). For Pearce (1993), the term 

volunteering is “the action which is taken without expecting any rewards for the 

efforts exerted and in which there is no monetary gain.” As it can be understood 

from the definitions, in volunteering, a person acts for the benevolence of 

community and a person that is committed to a voluntary work does that without 

expecting any kinds of rewards such as financial benefit. People have different 

reasons for participating in voluntary work. A person may be encouraged to do 

so because he/she has a set of values learnt from his/her families or because 

he/she wishes to expand his/her social circles via joining volunteering 

organizations. There are many reasons for people to participate in volunteering 

activities which are known as volunteer motivations. According to a research 

project titled “Developing the Volunteer Motivation Inventory To Assess the 

Underlying Motivational Drives of Volunteers in Western Australia”, carried out 

by Esmond and Dunlop, “the reasons for the motivations of people may be a 

complex issue but understanding the reasons and thus the motivations 

themselves can help the volunteering and non-volunteering organisations in 



5 
 

 
 

terms of drawing, placing and keeping the volunteers“(Esmond, J. and Dunlop, 

P., 2004). To meet this crucial need, they developed Volunteers Motivation 

Inventory (VMI) that consists of 10 parameters regarding values, career 

development, social interaction, recognition, reciprocity, reactivity, self- esteem, 

personal growth, religion, government, community. Thanks to this VMI, the 

members and those who may join the organizations in the future may find the 

means to preserve and enhance the engagement of their volunteers’motivations 

(Esmond, J. and Dunlop, P., 2004). This study aims to administer VMI to 

evaluate in this study VMI will be used to evaluate the volunteers’ motivation in 

the members of ARÇ. 

As for the content of this thesis, it is comprised of 5 chapters. Introductory 

information is provided in Chapter 1, along with the problem situation, aim of the 

study, importance of the study,research questions, limitations, and definitions of 

some important terms as used within this thesis. 

Chapter 2 is dedicated to the theoretical framework of the study. The 

importance of establishing and maintainingduring disasteris presented. The 

types of interpreting used to facilitate communication after or during disaster 

situationsare addressed. Brief information on the history of interpreting, 

community interpreting, ARÇ, and other types of interpreting are also presented 

in this chapter. 

The methodology of the study is presented in Chapter 3. The design, 

participants, methodology, data collecting tools, and details on data analysis 

techniques of the study are all given. 

Using tables and charts, chapter 4 provides the findings and discussion of the 

results of data collected by the personal information sheet and VMI. 

Chapter 5 dwells on the conclusions of the thesis and suggestions for further 

research.  

 

 



6 
 

 
 

PROBLEM SITUATION 

Disasters and emergency situations are considered to be the events that may 

cause unprecedented harm to the environment and the people living there.After 

an earthquake, being a natural type of disaster, a responsible organization such 

as AFAD with its search and rescue teams are deployed to the disaster area as 

soon as possible.And international aid organizations such as Red Crescent first-

aid and search and rescue teamsmay be sent after the government’s 

authorization.These all bring about the need forcommunication between foreign 

search and rescue teams and the local governments. This need of 

communication may be provided through locals who speak foreign language or 

better through interpreters who have beentrained and prepared for the disaster 

situations. ARÇ members are trained specifically for this purpose (Kurultay, 

Bulut, 2001; Doğan, 2016, p.63; Doğan, Kahraman, 2011, p.65). Voluntarily 

joining the ARÇ organization and receiving the available necessary trainings, 

ARÇ members learn how to facilitate communication wherever there is a 

language barrier. It may be between local authorities or local people and foreign 

search and rescue teams, medical personnel in sahra hospitals, media 

reporters, relief personnel or alike. The institutionalization efforts of this 

organization predate the year 2000 (Doğan, Kahraman, 2011, p.64).Following 

the initiatives of Istanbul University, Translation Studies Department, the initial 

gatherings of volunteer translators and interpreters, academics, and students 

from translation and interpreting as well as foreign language training 

departments convened under a non-governmental structure. To maintain the 

non-governmental legal status of interpreters to work in disasters, a triadic 

structure comprised of the Department of Translation Studies of Istanbul 

University representing the academia, Translation Association representing the 

non-governmental organization,and the Istanbul Governership of Civil Defence 

of the Provincial Directorates, representing the State, was established to launch  

the training of interpreters to operate during the emergency situations and to 

provide an institutionalized structure (Doğan, Kahraman, 2011: 64). From then 

on, ARÇ has assigned people having adequate language competency and 

provided trainings for them. As ARÇ Organization was founded on the basis of 



7 
 

 
 

volunteerism, volunteering motivation is a significant characteristic that is 

expected to enable the ARÇ members to act in the way what is expected of 

them during the disaster management period. The observations demonstrated 

that the volunteers seemed to act differently, which was thought to stem from 

different motivation types. Thus, this research is planned to find what sort of 

motivation types had given them propelling initiative.Created by Esmond and 

Dunlop, Volunteers Motivation Inventory (VMI)with 10 attributes of volunteer 

motivation is used in order to figure out the type of the source of the volunteers 

motivations of people in ARÇ Organization.The VMI consists of 10 sub-

motivations which are Values, Reciprocity, Recognition, Understanding, Self-

Esteem, Reactivity, Social , Protective , Social Interaction , Career Development 

and 5 likert-type inventory consisting of a total of 44 items (Esmond, Dunlop, 

2004). 

AIM OF THE STUDY 

This thesis aims to find and evaluate the volunteer motivations, by means of the 

the Volunteer Motivation Inventory that is expected to shed light into the 

situation and contribute to ourunderstanding of volunteerism in the ARÇ 

Organization. 

IMPORTANCE OF THE STUDY 

Taking into consideration that ARÇ organization focuses on the communication 

duringemergency and disaster situations, it is crucial to acknowledge that the 

actions of this organization is based upon voluntary work. As the organization 

shoulders such a crucial and demanding task, it is essential for all members of 

ARÇ, be it whether new recruits or initial ones, to know that their voluntary act is 

important. This sense of responsibility and their vital role during the disaster 

management may lead them make better decisions when their motivation types 

of volunteerism have been revealed and made known to them. 



8 
 

 
 

Research on ARÇ and volunteerism is scarce in Türkiye for the time being. 

Thus, this study is expected to improve the volunteerism notion of ARÇ 

members.and help explain the volunteerism mechanism in action inTürkiye. 

RESEARCH QUESTIONS 

As explained above, the aim of this thesis is to offer insight into the differences 

of volunteering motivations between those receiving the Basic 90- hour training 

and those who did not. Particularly, this thesis aims to find the answers for the 

questions below:  

1. Is there any significant difference between the participants who have 

received the Basic ARÇ training and those who did not in terms of the10 

attributes of volunteer motivation in Volunteers Motivation Scale (VMI)? 

2. Which attributes of VMI encouragethe participants who have received 90- 

hour ARÇ training to keep participating in ARÇ activities and emergency calls? 

3. Which attributes of VMI do the participants,who have received basic training 

posessbut have withdrawn later from ARÇ activities when compared to those 

who have not only received Basic Training but also keep involving in the 

activities of ARÇ? 

4.Is there any significant difference between the participants who have received 

any training (comprised of Basic Training, Face to Face Training and Online 

Training) and those who did not (No-Training) in terms of the 10 attributes of 

volunteer motivation in Volunteers Motivation Scale (VMI)? 

DEFINITIONS 

The definitions of the concepts below are explained in order to prevent 

confusion. 

1- ARÇ: The term “ARÇ” stands for the initials of Turkish version of Emergency 

and Disaster Interpreting, respectively A stands for Afette (Disaster), R stands 

for Rehber (Guide), and Ç stands for Çevirmen (Interpreter) 



9 
 

 
 

2- Basic Training: 90-hour training which includes ARÇ training (50 hours), 

Search and Rescue training of AFAD (30 hours and first aid training( 10 hours). 

3- Online Training/ Face to Face Training: This type of training refers to two 

days long training for new members of ARÇ, which may be explained as a 

short-term training of 90-hour Basic Training. 

4- Volunteers Motivation Inventory (VMI): The scale to be used to assess the 

volunteer motivations of the members of ARÇ (Those who received Basic 

Training and those who received Online or Face to Face Training) 

ASSUMPTIONS 

1- It is assumed that the participants responded the questionnaire sincerely. 

2- It is assumed that the participants who received online training, the ones who 

received face to face training and those who haven’t received any training 

answered the questions to the best of their knowledge. 

LIMITATIONS 

1- The participants of this thesis are limited to those who received 90-hour 

Basic Training, those who received short term training either online or 

face to face and those who haven’t received any training. 

2- The period of time this study refers to is limited to the period of time from 

the foundation years up till January of 2023. 

In the next chapter, theoretical framework of the study will be presented. 

 

 

 

 

 



10 
 

 
 

CHAPTER 1 

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 

This chapter provides information on the theoretical background of the study. 

Basic information on communication in emergency situations, ARÇ and similar 

organizations with ARÇ, interpreting, the history and types of interpreting will 

bepresented in the first part while the second part is dedicated to volunteerism, 

volunteer motivation and international studies on volunteerism. The Inventory 

that has been used to assess the volunteer motivation among the ARÇ 

members will bepresented in the last part.  

1.1. COMMUNICATION DURING DISASTERS 

One of the most obvious features of the chaos environment caused by the 

occurrence of disasters is the emergence of communication problems. 

Communication has an important impact not only in terms of the need for 

information, which rises to the highest levels at the time of a disaster, but also in 

decision-making processes at all stages of disaster management.  When a 

disaster occurs, swift and correct communication is vital. With the 

communication after a disaster, everyone, whether effected from the disaster or 

not, can get access to the information which can be considered as vital in that 

situation.A communication system in this regard, can be benefited not only after 

a disaster but also before it to be better prepared for emergencies and 

disasters. This system would also let the public get informed in a proper and 

well-timedway (Tulane University, 2023). When it comes to handling disasters 

and lessening their effects, effective communication is essential. There are 

several reasons why disaster communication is important: it can prevent panic, 

encourage beneficial behaviors, and help stakeholders coordinate their actions 

(Medford- Davis, Kapur, 2014, p.1). Sharing information between stakeholders 

is essential to reducing vulnerabilities in the event of natural and man-made 

disasters (Moorthy, Benny, Gill, 2018, p.52). Communication breakdowns 

during a catastrophe can have disastrous effects, making it more difficult for 

people to communicate and intensifying the effects on both human life and 



11 
 

 
 

economic activity (Elkhaled, Mcheick, 2019, p.1). The goals of communication 

during catastrophes are to spread vital information, prepare communities in 

advance of disasters, and avoid and mitigate harm (Bradley, McFarland, Clarke, 

2014, p.1). 

1.1.1. Communication in Terms of Ensuring Coordination Between 

Institutions 

A disaster can be described as a situation that obliges many actors with very 

different working cultures to work together in coordination.From a managerial 

point of view, Difficulties in the management of many actors, whose duties and 

responsibilities have been defined and not defined in relation to the disaster, 

arise as coordination problems in the extraordinary conditions caused by the 

disaster. For this reason, planning, testing, and developing communication 

facilities and communication methodology that provide both communication 

between people and timely obtainment of information from the field and 

connection between institutions is extremely important by means of effective 

emergency management before the disaster.In order to establish a single 

operational picture, flexible communication and information technologies are 

crucial in disaster response (SAMSHA, https://www.samhsa.gov/dtac/disaster-

response-template-toolkit/communications).This emphasizes how flexible 

communication methods are necessary to enable smooth cooperation.The 

public health specialists at Tulane University stress the need of creating a 

disaster communication strategy. A plan like this guarantees effective 

information dissemination in times of crisis, promoting cooperation between 

organizations and interested parties (Tulane University, Developing Disaster 

Communication Plan, 2023). The Strategy Project emphasizes the vital role 

inclusive technology plays in disaster management and communication during 

emergencies. Information dissemination and coordinated response operations 

are made easier by inclusive technology (The Critical Role of Inclusive 

Technology for Communication in Crisis and Disaster Management ,2023). For 

example in 2005, the inability of the existing pacific early warning system to 

transmit signals to the relevant countries and institutions of the South Asia 

https://www.samhsa.gov/dtac/disaster-response-template-toolkit/communications
https://www.samhsa.gov/dtac/disaster-response-template-toolkit/communications


12 
 

 
 

earthquake, which affected up to 12 countries from Asia to the coast of Africa 

and caused the deaths of more than 200.000 people, and the tsunami that 

followed, has revealed the importance of communication infrastructure, showing 

how crucial it is not only technically but also in an organizational sense,  and 

shown that the technical infrastructure will not provide the appropriate benefit 

for the desired goal (UNDRR, 2012). 

1.1.2. Communication in Increasing Community Disaster Awareness 

The aim of the communication strategy studies in disaster management is to 

increase people's awareness of the risks they have been exposed to, to 

minimize their damages and to increase their resistance to the effects of 

disaster. In this context, the role of communication can be evaluated in two 

stages (Lindell and Perry, 2012) 

-Pre-disaster period; mitigation of damages in the medium and long term and 

emergency preparedness to increase awareness, educational activities, 

raisingawareness through activities such as insurance for conducting risk 

communication and disaster preparedness. 

-Carrying out communication activities aimed at meeting the need for both 

security-related warnings (hazard warning, evacuation and harm reduction 

activities aimed at taking protection measures) and information about the 

incident in the situation of increasing crisis (the nature of the event, the area of 

impact, the affected, what has been done, what is planned to be done, etc.), in 

the event of an emergency or incident that has started to turn into a disaster. 

Both situations require the preparation of an effective communication program. 

While the activation of humanitarian financial resources is limited in the first 

phase, time pressure in the second phase may lead to all unprepared 

communication activities to cause great damage. 

1.2. INTERPRETING 

Easy and true flow of communication in disaster times is of utmost importance. 

As far as the communication with or among foreign bodies or search and rescue 



13 
 

 
 

teams and/or medical teams are concerned interpreting comes to the fore.This 

section provides information on the definition and the history of interpreting. 

1.2.1. What is Interpreting? 

In psychology, people are perceived not as static beings, but as a dynamic 

system that observes, operates stimuli andmakes sense of the environment. 

The most obvious feature that distinguishes man from other living beings is the 

ability of man to process incoming stimuli and to make sense of them. Cognitive 

formations encompass mental information processing processes such as 

perception, memory and thinking. Using these processes, the translator 

acquires new information about his/her surroundings, remembers things that 

happened in the past, and solves problems. 

 

Each and every type of interpreting and the profession are known by many 

scholars in this field to be demanding and cognitive components when 

compared to the other jobs around the world. The reasons for these demanding 

components are the fact that the translation is done at the present and the fact 

that this fact of being at the present causes intensive cognitive load. While the 

other cognitive elements are not crucial in any other job or activity, they cause 

complication in interpreting as they cause the cognitive load to increase during 

the activity of interpreting. Normally, if a person receives more sensory cues 

than he can take, he might feel crushed by the intensive level of stimuli. If we try 

to process many events in memory, we are overloaded and this can lead to 

performance impairments (Solso; Maclin, 2007:9). 

 

Interpreting consists of series of activities that are compound, organized and 

creative that make communication possiblebetween individuals from different 

cultures and different languages. Mainly, the way the the source text is sent is 

orally; the source text is understood, and the target text is created by the 

interpreter simultaneously; the interpreter has few chances of correcting his 

interpretings because he has little time to do so. Interpretation is the 

construction of the target text on the meaning of the source text and is done by 



14 
 

 
 

considering the thoughts and intentions of the writer or the creator of the text. 

As a result of this process a target text is produced, which must meet the 

criteria of expectations from a target audience in terms of not only linguistics but 

also culture. According to Byram, the interpreting deals with “the transfer of oral 

or written message from a SL, into an oral message in the TL, not only help to 

further global communication but also serve a number of other purposes” 

(Byram, 2004, p. 312). 

 

Unlike written translation, interpreting includes a source text that is constructed 

verbally and only once.Thus, unlike in the act of translation, the interpreter has 

quite limited opportunity of returning to the point of the creation of the intended 

text. As Gile states, the interpreting is “the oral or signed translation of 

oralorsigned discourse, as opposed to oral translation of written texts” (Gile, 

2009, p. 51). 

 

As the act of interpreting is challenging, the interpreter must prepare him/herself 

for this process of high mental stimuli properly and comprehensively. The 

interpreter has to improve not only his/her language level but also his/her world 

knowledge because throughout his/her professional life, an interpreter may 

encounter with different fields of expertises in which he/she has to interpret. 

Even if he/she specializes in a field and interprets in it, he/she may still have the 

change to encounter with a different field. For example, an interpreter may 

specialize in the field of transport and infrastructure and become the personal 

interpreter for the minister himself. Talking about the field and discussing about 

the relations between the two countries one of the Ministers may suddenly 

change the topic and start talking about politics. In this case, interpreter’s the 

knowledge of the terminology of politics, the recent political events in his 

country and the other Minister’s country are of utmost importance for the 

success of the interpreting act. However, this does not necessarily mean that an 

interpreter must have knowledge on everything. The vital point for the 

interpreter is knowledge of relevant field though the level of this knowledge may 

be low. Thus, an interpreter must have a general knowledge about every field 



15 
 

 
 

but have a mastery on one of the fields. Some scholars pointed out to this fact 

by putting the interpreter into the center of the interpreting act. For Paneth, one 

of the scholars who put the interpreter in the middle of the whole action an 

interpreter is “a person who repeats a speech in a different language from that 

in which it is first pronounced, either simultaneously with, or consecutively to, 

the original speaker” (Paneth, 1957/2002, p. 31). 

 

A proper and detailed preparation is a must for a high-quality interpreting. In this 

context, mere knowledge of terminology will not suffice for an interpreter to be 

successful during the interpreting process. Moreover, a profound knowledge of 

a field is a must for the act of interpreting. Thus, as the scholars in the field of 

interpreting and interpreting studies have acknowledged, it is clear that the 

knowledge of terminology supplement the knowledge of field. 

1.2.2. The History of Interpreting 

In the history of Interpreting, it is a fact by the scholars of the field that the act of 

interpreting is as old as the communication itself. It is observed that people 

needed translators or interpreters to be able to communicate with people from 

other societies, tribes, groups, etc., which includes every context they interact 

with each other. As Angelelli states, “Every cross-linguistic/cultural 

communicative event includes (or should include) an interpreter” (Angelelli, 

2004, p.98). This necessity for the interpreter specifically emerges as a result of 

trade, war, education and politics (Doğan, 2017:11). The interpreting aims to 

establish the communication between groups or people who cannot speak the 

same language. The interpreting commences as soon as two groups with two 

different languages come across and begin communicating. The act of 

interpreting is carried out for not only the transfer of the thoughts, ideas, or 

messages but also culture and knowledge. 

 

According to Pöchhacker, the need for an interpreter can be explained as for 

whatever reason, whether it is geographical proximity, whether it is a voluntary 

or involuntary migration, we can say that the act of interpretation begins from 



16 
 

 
 

the moment when societies using different languages encounter each other 

(Pöchhacker, 2004). The groups with different languages have always been in 

the need of interpreters for facilitating communication when they encounter. 

Similarly, other studies showed that according to the information in the Bible, 

there are signs that interpreting was made in the Greeks, Romans, Persian 

Empire, Byzantium and even in China in B.C. 

 

Pöchhacker supports this fact by stating that interpreting is an ancient human 

practice (Pöchhacker, 2004). According to Alfred Hermann, who has studied the 

history of interpretation, “the noticeable separation of cultures from each other 

in the Eastern Mediterranean dates back to 4th century B.C. He also 

emphasizes that quite advanced civilizations had been established in the same 

region at different places and times since that date” (Doğan, 2017:10). 

 

According to the academic sources, the action of translation goes back to 4500 

B.C. Considered that interpreting is older than translation as the writing was 

later invented than the spoken language, it can be clearly stated that 

interpreting began earlier than 4500 B.C.  

 

The origin of the concept of interpreter is based on an Assyrian word dating 

back to 4000 B.C. The word "interpreter" has entered into Turkish and Arabic in 

early eras, and also the words in Italian, as "dragomanno," and the French 

"drogman" or "truchement" were derived from that Assyrian word (Eruz, 

2003:17). 

 

Interpreters, then known as “Dragoman” were known to be caravan masters or 

acting as experts that were facilitating formal communications. The prisoners 

between 2000-1000 B.C. were known to be used as interpreters. In addition to 

that, the fact that interpreters also came from noble families and that they had 

been respected as the intermediaries between kings and the dead people, other 

than translating documents and interpreting common people. According to the 

research, it was announced that interpreter guilds of which the interpreters were 



17 
 

 
 

members had been founded around Cappadocia around 1800 B.C. (Eruz, 

2003:23). 

 

The Crusades are associated with Christians' attempts in the Middle Ages to 

wrest possession of their Holy Land from Muslims. Since several Christian 

crusaders did not understand French, these multilingual, polyglot army needed 

bilingual people to translate. Interpreters were therefore sent to support the 

crusaders (Baigorri-Jalón, 2015, p. 14). 

 

In Ancient Egypt around 3000 B.C., the amount of translation activity was high. 

The fact that the statements given by foreigners during the trial were translated 

into the Egyptian language was typed in ancient Egyptian inscriptions (Doğan, 

2017:10). Alexandria had been a vital hub in this regard, and many interpreters 

were trained here from slaves. It is thought that Caesar owned many 

interpreters on his way to Egypt. 

 

Doğan states that that Alexander the Great, who founded a great empire 300 

years before Caesar, also took interpreterss with him on his expeditions to 

Thrace and he was knownto use the interpreters to convey his orders to his 

troops who did not know Greek in this way. Similar practices were also held 

during Roman Empire, where communication was formed through translators 

for mercenaries from different ethnic backgrounds and with speaking different 

languages.Doğan explains that interpreters were described as “smart men” in 

African societies and that translation was a profession passed down from father 

to son because Africans thought that being “smart” was inherited. For these 

reasons, translators had the highest status in African societies. However, 

African translators suffered a serious loss of status during the colonial period. In 

China, in the first centuries A.C., intermediaries who provided communication 

between a Buddhist priest called the “chief commentator” and a Chinese man 

called the “bas katip”, who transferred the priest's words into Chinese, were 

engaged in interpreting (Doğan, 2017:11). 

 



18 
 

 
 

Thus, it can be concluded that throughout the history of the world, translators 

were needed in all fields, from trade to politics, from education to war in the 

situations where different societies had been communicating and interacting 

with each other. 

 

Dogan reports that translators and interpreters were called “turjuman” in Arabic, 

derived from Aramaic, during the Seljuk period:  

 
“Turjumans were people appointed by the state by decree and highly respected; 

they conducted correspondence with foreign states, provided communication 
between foreigners and local people in court, the defendant, and the Decedent. In 
the first half of the thirteenth century, at the time of Aladdin Keykubat, there were 
two translators in the state office and two private clerks who helped these 
translators” (Doğan: 2017: 12).” 

 

1.2.3. The History of Modern Time Interpreting 

In the early history of interpreting, Christopher Columbus sent young Indians to 

Spain to be trained as interpreters, which means that the first generation of 

interpreters in the West appeared with the training of locals as translators who 

were withheld by the explorers. (Herbert, 1977, p.5) The same practice was 

used twice in 1534 and 1536 by the French navigator Jacques Cartier who was 

known as the first European to explore the St. Lawrence River as long as it 

goes to Montreal and became aware of the “Great Seas”. On his first 

expedition, he kidnapped the two sons of an Indian tribal leader and took them 

to France. He forced these children he kidnapped to learn French and used 

them as interpreters.In addition to Cartier's attempts to pressure the natives he 

forcibly withheld to learn French in order to create a team of translators so that 

he could use them for his own work, other colonial powers tried different ways 

with the same goal with more effective language policies. Based on these 

practices, Samuel de Champlain founded an institute named Quebéc in 1608 to 

train translators. The young French were settled in the indigenous tribes that 

traded extensively with the French. 

 



19 
 

 
 

Doğan stated that there were two types of interpreter status in the new world, 

the first of which was the translator group formed by the natives, and that these 

translators lost the high status they had in their communities before colonialism. 

She arguedthat interpreters in the second group were in a lower position than 

their colleagues in equal positions in countries such as Latin America, Canada 

and the United States. She alsostatedthat the translators, who consisted of 

locals of this group, were described as traitors by their communities and they 

were called “malinchista”, which means “traitor”. In addition, most of the 

translators in the minority group were women, and they were not allowed to 

work. Moreover, in 1851, women in Brazil were forbidden by law to become 

interpreters. Doğan emphasized that during the colonial period, interpreters not 

only mediated communication, but also performed various tasks such as 

guidance, muscularity, brokerage, diplomacy, embassy or consultancy. Foreign 

minorities in each country performed interpreting. In the past, unlike today, 

instead of teaching a foreign language to the citizens of a country, foreigners in 

that country were taught the native language of that country and were made 

interpreters. There are many examples of this from the world, for example, in 

the Ottoman Empire, translators usually consisted of Greek, Italian, German, 

Hungarian and Polish people. In Czechoslovakia, too, interpreting was done by 

war migrants and Jews who had survived concentration camps. In Japan, on 

the other hand, from the seventeenth to the second half of the nineteenth 

century, translation was a family monopoly. In Türkiye, on the other hand, at 

that time, Greek translators held the upper hand in the profession. In the middle 

of the nineteenth century, many educational institutions were founded in Egypt, 

where instructors brought from abroad were employed. The lessons were given 

through interpreting (Doğan, 2017:13, 14-15). 

 

Despite the fact that translators were chosen from minority groups, as Doğan 

pointed out, they usually had the highest status in the whole world, emphasizing 

that this could be most easily seen in the Ottoman Empire. 

 

 



20 
 

 
 

"As an example of this, we can show Anrico Concini in the sixteenth century. 
Anrico was an Italian who served as an ambassador of the Papacy in Istanbul. 
After a clash, he was captured by the Turks. Thanks to his knowledge of Turkish 
and his diplomatic experience, Anrico Koncini served alongside Turkish admirals 
such as , Oruç Reis, Hızır Reis (Barbaros Hayreddin Pasa), Salih Reis and Aydın 
Reis, and ensured that they could communicate in important diplomatic meetings. 
Later, he became a Muslim and changed his name to “Sansar Huseyin” and rose 
to the rank of “chieftain” (Doğan, 2017:15). 

 

Dogan argues that the sixteenth century was the period when professional 

translation began to be institutionalized in the Ottoman Empire. According to 

Doğan, the increase in diplomatic and commercial relations at that time caused 

to the need for more professional translators (Doğan, 2017:15-16). 

 

Eruz states that in the sixteenth century, Venice sent candidates for interpreters 

to Istanbul for training, and France, influenced by this practice, took the 

example of the Venetians when opening the "Language Boys" school. 

 

"In this sense, we can say that the "Language Boys" school established by the 
French in Istanbul is the first school that regularly provides translation education. 
Turkish Arabic, Persian and Persian young children from France to Istanbul were 
sent to this school by the Genoese priests and as the candidates of interpreters, 
these young children were raised multiculturally by receiving Turkish, Arabic and 
Persian language lessons. As a result of these developments, Turkish- French 
dictionaries were created, cultural studies were carried out in these areas, and 
France became the first country to create the first works and studies about the East 
in the Western language through Dil Oğlanları School. At the same time, with the 
initiative of the Dil Oğlanları School, France also laid the foundations of the "Living 
Oriental Languages School" in Paris. As we have mentioned before, the areas of 
activity, duties and privileges of interpreters were kept wide by not only the 
Ottoman Empire but also France. Interpreters assumed the role of intermediaries 
providing communication between the West and the East and in this context, they 
provided translation for treaties, speeches and official documents in many different 
fields such as diplomacy, law, trade” (Eruz, 2003:15-16). 

 

 

Eruz states that in later centuries, the profession of interpreter turned into a 

profession passed from father to son, that children sent to study abroad by 

Ottoman families worked as interpreters, and that some of these children sent 

abroad took positions at state levels (Eruz, 2003:33). 

 

According to Doğan, Lütfi Bey, who was sent to Venice to fulfill a treaty during 

the Ottoman period, was the first translator of the Empire to be recorded. Doğan 



21 
 

 
 

also states that it was thought that the status of translators serving as officials 

had been given by Fatih Sultan Mehmet for the first time (Doğan, 2017:12). 

 

According to Eruz, the most important translators about whom information can 

be collected during the Ottoman period are Yunus Bey and Murad Bey (Eruz, 

2003:32-33). In addition, Eruz said that translators were also given the duty of 

grand vizier in the Ottoman Empire, giving Deciter Rüsdi Mehmet Pasa as an 

example. He was appointed grand vizier five times between 1859 and 1878 

(Eruz, 2003:40). 

 

Doğan expressed the importance given to translators and the privileges that this 

importance brings:"unlike other Christians, translators were allowed to grow 

beards, wear furs, employ four servants, and ride horses. Basçevirmen, on the 

other hand, were able to employ 12 servants, 8 language boys and were 

exempt from the jizya tax levied on non-Muslims” (Doğan, 2017:16). 

 

By the eighteenth century, we can see that the duties of official translators in the 

Ottoman Empire were determined in four separate areas, these are: 

 

a. Translators who work within the Porte looking at legal affairs. 

b. Translators working in local governments. 

c. Translators working in educational institutions. 

d. Translators working in the embassies and consulates of foreigners (Doğan, 

2017:16-17). 

 

Stating that a ‘Translation Room’ was established in 1822 with the increasing 

need for a translator, Doğan says that in 1833, the people working in this room 

consisted of Turks and other Muslims and that they were raised for the state. 

Thanks to the translations made in this institution, ideas from the West began to 

be transmitted, and this contributed a lot to the Tanzimat in terms of starting 

westernization movements (Dogan, 2017: 32-33). 

 



22 
 

 
 

From a historical point of view, it is clear that interpreters have played important 

roles in many important events. Doğan pointed out that French and English 

speaking young officers were utilized by the Germans to discuss different 

issues in the post-World War I armistice commissions, while the Allies used 

experienced people who translated in French and English. Despite these 

difficult conditions, Doğan stated that a very successful consecutive interpreting 

action was carried out and that it was of great benefit in reaching the present 

point and developing new techniques in this direction. 

 

The studies carried out in this direction were done step by step and the working 

conditions of the interpreter were improved mostly by using trial and error 

method. Doğan states that while the working conditions were improved, there 

were some changes in the role of the interpreter, and that the interpreters came 

to a point where they were able to provide technical advice on the conference 

layout due to their experience in the field of interpreting (Doğan, 2017:19- 20). 

According to Dogan, the development, which can be considered the first step of 

andas translation, took place in 1937-1938, that is, just before World War II. 

 

“A place was constructed for the translator under the podium, just like the place 

where the orchestra was located in the opera, and the interpreter entered here, 

listening to the sound coming from the speakers, tried to understand the speech 

without seeing the speakers, and simultaneously interpreted into a box called 

”hushaphone". At the same time, in addition to this interpreter, another interpreter 

sits on the podium and interprets into another official language for the president of 

the session or the secretary general” (Dogan, 2017:21). 

 

Rütten says that the profession of conference translator emerged when French, 

which was used as the language of diplomats for two hundred years within the 

framework of the League of Nations, lost its importance after the First World 

War. Rütten also states that English became increasingly important and 

translation had to be performed between English and French as official 

languages during conferences, which forced conference translators to learn 

both consecutive and simultaneous interpreting in practice (Rütten, 2007:14). 



23 
 

 
 

 

French and English were the official languages of the meetings during the 

establishment of the United Nations, and languages such as Spanish and 

Chinese were not yet used in the meetings. The translations made for the 

Soviet delegations, on the other hand, were made by inexperienced delegates, 

so very serious mistakes were made. At a meeting of the World Health 

Organization (WHO), the participants insisted that Spanish be accepted as the 

meeting language, just like English and French, and thus Spanish also became 

a language used at meetings. But this caused many problems. Normally, 

consecutive interpreting doubles the duration of a speaker, but when it comes to 

translating into two languages, the duration of a speaker triples. This situation 

gave momentum to the transition from the consecutive translation method to the 

andas translation method (Doğan, 2017:22). 

 

With the establishment of ministries of foreign affairs and international 

governmental organizations, the profession of interpreting reached to a certain 

maturity. In the second half of the nineteenth century, the need for interpreters 

increased more, whose reason was the formation of international organizations 

established in the fields of telecommunications and railways. The number of 

conferences for specialized fields had seen increase; with the ease of access, 

more experts who spoke different languages and, unlike diplomats, did not have 

a foreign language requirement in their education started to come together 

(Rütten, 2007:13-14). 

 

Interpreting, which made its importance felt in the international political arena 

especially until the late nineteenth and mid-twentieth centuries, has enhanced 

its importance significantly with developed nations starting to exploit small 

nations with the technologies they produce, which is another type of 

decolonization introduced into the world history during the cold war period. 

International capital utilized interpreters to provide dialogue with different 

countries while it was using the method of marketing the goods it produces to 

other countries and technology transfer. When traveling to foreign countries, the 



24 
 

 
 

only way to communicate about goods purchase was through the success of 

interpreters. Developments in the technical field have led way interpreting with a 

more advanced method over time, and the effect of interpreting has increased 

even more with a an interpreting method that gives the feeling that people are 

speaking to themselves in their own language in the same environment. 

 

Another factor that plays a role in the development and generalization of 

simultaneous translation is illustrated as the developments in the technical field; 

these developments are primarily in the improvement of the field of 

transportation ,the realization of the Industrial Revolution and growing numbers 

of international meetings, and later interpreting's involvement in these meetings 

and simultaneity of communication with the development of 

telecommunication.With the developing technology, the demands for the 

performance of the interpreter have increased , which are listed as increased 

specialist knowledge as a result of the experts coming together, learning the 

consecutive interpreting method as well as the simultaneous interpreting 

method, operating for a short time in the context of telecommunications 

opportunities. In the same way, with the ease of accessing information, the 

interpreter is also expected to have extensive knowledge in the context of the 

conference interpreting field (Rütten, 2007:14). 

 

Since consecutive interpreting required a lot of time in multilingual conferences, 

alternative solutions had been searched in the 1920s. At the International Labor 

Organization conference held in Ghent in 1927, the simultaneous interpreting 

method was applied with the first portable Filene-Finlay-IBM system 

(International-Business Machines), that is, a telephone device (Pöchhacker, 

2004). 

 

Simultaneous interpreters were used for the first time at the sixth Comintern 

Congress held in the former Soviet Union in 1928 (Rütten, 2007:14). 

 



25 
 

 
 

The simultaneous interpreting method, which was used several times in the 

beginning of the 1930s and 1940s gave its first important test at the Nuremberg 

trials (1945-1946), where war criminals were tried after the second world war. 

Although this interpreting method, which was used only to save time, was 

initially doubted in terms of its accuracy and reliability, it managed to stay on the 

media's agenda for a long time by proving its "success" in a short time 

(Pöchhacker, 2004). 

 

With a few exceptions, among the interpreters called to Nuremberg, none of 

these interpreters had studied simultaneous interpreting or had previously 

applied this method before. Everything was new and unfamiliar and had to be 

learned in a short time. Some of the interpreters started interpreting after 

attending some sessions, taking notes about interpreting, and finishing training 

phase by doing interpreting practice. Despite the many problems that arose, the 

simultaneous interpreting experiment successfully completed the Nuremberg 

trials. 

1.3. THE TYPES OF INTERPRETING 

This sectionpresents the types of interpreting, respectively Sight Interpreting, 

ConsecutiveInterpreting, SimultaneousInterpreting, EscortInterpreting, 

CommunityInterpreting, Emergency and Disaster Interpreting, Healthcare 

Interpreting and Court Interpreting. 

 

1.3.1. Types of Interpreting 

In this section, the types of interpreting will be introduced and the selected types 

of interpreting, both in terms of its performance and its characteristics as 

general types of interpreting which can be encountered in sports translation are 

discussed. 

 

 



26 
 

 
 

1.3.2. Sight interpreting 

This type of interpreting, as the name implies, is made from the written texts. 

Usually it refers to the interpreting, which is made from the written text without 

preparation (Shuttleworth & Cowie, 1997:154). The translator has a text written 

in the source language in his hands. The translator reads the text with while 

performing the interpreting from the written text to the target language. The 

translator observes the text in his hand during this type of interpreting, which is 

also called sight interpreting (Tahir Gürçağlar, 2011:72).  It is seen that in the 

naming of this type of interpreting in other languages such as English and 

French, emphasis is put on the action of 'looking'. Because in English this type 

is called "sight translation", "translation-at-sight", "on-sight translation", while in 

French the name of this type is it is "traduction à vue". 

 

At first glance, it may seem that this type of interpreting has a similarity with the 

consecutive translation. Because the translator performs the interpreting 

towards the target language in both types by looking at the source language 

existing in the form of a written text. However, this source text is a text which is 

generally created after a though process in the interpreting from the written text 

while, in the consecutive translation, the translator interprets the speech 

towards the target language by using the notes he took during the speech. 

When interpreting from written texts there is a text which the translator use as a 

base, and the translator is expected to use his/her skills of reading the text and 

expressing what he/she read in the target language; he/she is expected to 

interpret the speech towards the target language by using the notes he/she 

wrote down during a speech delivered in the source language remembering the 

speech. In summary, these two types of interpreting bring about different 

cognitive processes. 

 

Sight interpreting appears to be a type of interpreting used in the trainings of the 

translators. It is a type of interpreting which is instructed in the schools providing 

interpreting trainings and supports every aspect of the interpreting. Persons 

performing interpreting especially on this field are not sought in the market 



27 
 

 
 

(Doğan, 2017:56). However, the translators, who are expected to provide 

simultaneous or consecutive interpreting services, can be given a written text 

and requested to perform interpreting. 

 

Sight interpreting can be performed in different ways depending upon the 

professional context. According to Annalisa Sandrelli, the most common 

contexts are: 1) prepared sight interpreting, where the translator is given the 

text beforehand and has time to perform interpreting, 2) unprepared sight 

interpreting where the translator is given a text, which he/she has not seen 

before, and requested to perform interpreting at that moment, 3) and the context 

where the translator is given the text, which will be read by the speaker, 

beforehand and expected to interpret this text simultaneously in the interpreting 

booth. (Sandrelli,2003:272). It can be said with these features that interpreting 

from the written text stands somewhere between the consecutive and 

simultaneous interpreting. 

 

Certain problems can be encountered by interpreters. While performing sight 

interpreting. According to Aymil Doğan, these problems can be addressed 

under four titles: 1) Problems arising from the limited time, 2) Problems arising 

from the speaker, 3) Problems arising from the text structure, 4) Problems 

arising from the interpreter (Doğan, 2017:27-28). A document can be given to a 

interpreterassigned to a conference setting where simultaneous and 

consecutive interpreting is performed or to a translator providing court or 

community interpreting services and request from the to verbalize the document 

in the target language. In a situation as such, interpretershould be given to them 

in order for him/her to skim the text. 

1.3.3. Simultaneous Interpreting 

Simultaneous interpreting is one of the two fundamental types of interpreting. 

By general definition, this is a type of interpreting where the translator performs 

the interpreting simultaneously while the speaker is speaking (Doğan, 2017:50). 

Audience hear the interpreting simultaneously with the speech in the 



28 
 

 
 

simultaneous interpreting. This type of interpreting, also called and known as 

Simultaneous interpreting, consecutive interpreting, concurring interpreting, and 

instant interpreting has certain sub branches within itself. 

 

One of these is the simultaneous interpreting within a booth. In this sub branch, 

the interpreteris situated at an interpreting booth with special equipment and 

works with a headphone and a microphone. The audience also have 

headphones for listening the interpreting. If they wish so, they can also listen 

interpreting to other target languages via these headphones by changing 

channels. In contrast to the consecutive interpreting, the translator is not visible 

in this type. Aninterpreterdisplays an “invisible” presence and the only thing 

audience hear is the voice of the translator (Shuttleworth & Cowie, 1997:155). 

In the simultaneous interpreting within a booth, the translator is situated inside a 

booth and works with a device. Besides the headphone, there are also voice 

control button to be used by the translator while listening the speech, a button 

used to block the voice other than the interpreting (cough, questions to his/her 

partner in the booth or the voice he/she makes while drinking water) to be heard 

by the audience and the relay button enabling the translator to listen other 

interpreting booths in case relay interpreting is performed. 

 

There is a soundproof booth for each language pair and translators work as a 

team within these booths at the meeting and conferences where interpreting is 

performed. According to AIIC professional standards, “as a general rule, a team 

consists of two interpreters for every language and booth”. They perform 

interpreting from the B languages to A languages on a rotation basis. Due to the 

fact that performing simultaneous interpreting requires an intensive 

concentration and considering their mental fatigue, the translators perform 

simultaneous interpreting for a duration of 20 to 30 minutes on a rotation basis. 

At the end of this duration, the inactive translator, “[…] is ready to assist his/her 

colleague when needed.”  (Phelan, 2001:7). Teamwork is an integral part of the 

simultaneous interpreting. The microphone is not muted until the speaker ends 

its speech (Taylor-Bouladon, 2007:108). This technique, used firstly in the 



29 
 

 
 

Nuremberg Tribunals, is now used widely at the multilanguage meetings and 

trials (Shuttleworth & Cowie, 1997:155). 

 

In the simultaneous interpreting outside the booth, translator also performs the 

interpreting simultaneously; however, unlike the simultaneous interpreting within 

a booth, no interpreting equipment or booth is utilized. Although it is a type 

applied due to an urgent need, this under branch of simultaneous interpreting is 

not preferred according to the professional standards. This type, used in the 

early stages of the interpreting, can be used with the initiative of the translator 

as a consequence of technical problem (Doğan, 2017:52). 

 

As a natural consequence of the rapid development of the communication 

technology, an event occurring in any part of the world is heard in even the 

quite distant places in the earth. Television is also one of the most important 

tools of the communications technology in terms of broadcasting an event 

visually. As a consequence of the need for conveying a statement made in a 

foreign language on an event broadcasted simultaneously, simultaneous 

interpreting type emerged and it developed and became a necessity. Because 

“[…] being able to convey a statement instantly to the audience effects the 

quality of the channels.” (Doğan, 2017:40). TV channels request this sub branch 

of simultaneous interpreting in order to provide simultaneous observance of the 

information flow in their own broadcasts.  Translator may be employed within 

the channels or called from outside the channel when needed. This type, which 

is performed today in situations and broadcasts such as statements of the 

politicians, Academy Awards (Oscar) became prominent in Türkiye in 1990 

during the Gulf War and came to be known by the public. 

 

With the development of technology, internet technology in particular, Video-

conference interpreting “[…] came to the forefront by enabling communication 

and conferences between the people, who are located at places far from each 

other and can not meet one another for various reasons” (Doğan, 2017:55). A 

very sophisticated electronic mechanism is needed in order for the sound 



30 
 

 
 

performance of this sub branch of interpreting. Because, with the video 

conference method, an intermediate tool is added between the speaker and 

translator and not seeing the speaker live may affect the quality of the 

interpreting. 

 

Another sub-branch of the simultaneous interpreting is the sign language 

interpreting. It is sub branch of the simultaneous interpreting that is performed 

for the individuals who lost their hearings and can not understand the speech 

(Phelan,2001:14). It also includes hand, facial and body gestures. Every country 

has its own sign language and it can differentiate based on dialects. 

Fingerspelling technique can be also used to support the signs and while 

performing the interpreting, the translator stands before the audience and is 

visible unlike the other sub branches of the simultaneous interpreting. Another 

difference of this type is that it can be performed between two languages and 

also within the same language in order to provide communication. 

1.3.4. Consecutive Interpreting 

Consecutive interpreting “[…] is a type of interpreting which brings translator 

and the audience together at the same setting, does not require a special tool 

and is performed by the translator through the notes he/she took on the speech 

delivered by the speakers for a certain duration.” (Doğan, 2017:65). It is one of 

the two main types of the interpreting. In consecutive interpreting, the translator 

frequently takes notes while the speaker is delivering his/her speech and after 

the end of the speech, he creates a text with what is left in his memory with the 

help of his notes. Interpreting is not performed till the end of the speech unlike 

simultaneous interpreting. By this, it should not be understood the end of the 

whole speech. Because (if it is possible), the translator should decide, together 

with the speaker, on after how many sentences he will perform the consecutive 

interpreting. In order to perform sound interpreting it is a requisite. “The speaker 

pauses and allows the translator to interpret the speech towards to target 

language; after the interpreting for that part of the speech, the speaker 

proceeds to the next part of his speech. This continues until the speech is 



31 
 

 
 

delivered and interpreted towards the target language completely.” 

(Shuttleworth & Cowie, 1997:28). While technical equipment is not needed, 

microphones can be used in the large halls in order for the translator to make 

his voice heard easily. 

 

Ideally, the duration of speech which the translator is expected to interpret is 6 

to 7 minutes (Gentile v.d., 1996:23). According to AIIC standards “[…] an 

educated interpreter may perform the consecutive interpreting of the speeches 

which are a couple of minutes long.” In case the duration of speech is long, the 

speech is divided in a couple of parts and consecutive interpreting is performed 

between these parts. A preliminary speech can be made with the speaker on 

after how long the speaker will pause and expect the interpreting to be 

performed due to the fact that consecutive interpreting requires a very intensive 

mental process and the effective use of the short-term memory. Considering 

that in consecutive interpreting, interpreting is performed after the speaker and 

the duration of this interpreting will be nearly the same with the speech, it is 

seen that this type of interpreting doubles the meeting and speaking time unlike 

simultaneous interpreting. Simultaneous can be chosen for saving time while 

consecutive interpreting, although it does not provide an advantage in terms of 

time, may be preferred due to the lower cost. Because no technical equipment 

is needed for the consecutive interpreting except than microphone. 

 

However, this duration may increase or decrease depending upon the 

conference type and setting. In general terms the conference setting can be 

divided into three categories: 1) Conference hall meetings with large 

participation and more than 20 persons; 2) Round table or conference hall 

meetings with 15 to 20 persons; 3) Private and secret meetings organized with 

a couple of persons. In the first meeting setting, the speaker addresses the 

audience in a hall from a platform and the translator generally takes notes while 

standing. The duration of speech may reach 5 to 10 minutes. Visual aids 

supporting the speech may facilitate the interpreting towards the target 

language. Information transfer is unilateral. However, communication and 



32 
 

 
 

exchange of information can be made during the Question-and-Answer part. In 

the second meeting setting translator sits at the same table with the speaker 

and audience. Non-linguistic elements contributing to the interpreting can be 

mentioned due to the easier and more effective communication between the 

people at this setting. While the use of language may vary at this type of 

meeting, the duration of speeches is shorter comparted to the first setting. The 

last meeting setting is based on the exchange of views between the parties. 

Communication is not unilateral. For this reason, speeches are limited to a 

couple of sentences. Depending upon the topics negotiated between the 

participants, press release may be required after the end of this type of 

meetings (Doğan, 2017:65-66). Although it is a classification which can not be 

separated with sharp lines and can be interpreted within each other, this 

classification made by Doğan is useful in terms of defining the broad terms in 

the genre. These types can be diversified based on the context, the needs of 

those who need the interpreting and many other elements. Because Interpreting 

circumstances are as diverse as the communication circumstances.. As a 

consequence of this diversity, attitude taken by the translator while performing 

interpreting may vary. 

 

Consecutive interpreting, which is performed at a meeting setting and mostly 

includes long speeches, where the systematic note-taking techniques are used 

and communication and information transfer is unilateral for it is aimed in a way 

to inform the audience, is the “classic’ consecutive” interpreting, as mentioned 

by Pöchhacker (Pöchhacker, 2004: 19) and used as a base to a lot of research 

made on consecutive interpreting. Although information flow is unilateral in this 

type of consecutive interpreting, there may be times where it can be bilateral 

due to the setting where the meeting is held or consecutive interpreting is 

performed. As an example of the bilateral flow of information, question-and-

answer part can be given. The types of consecutive interpreting which are 

performed without taking notes, in which the duration of the conversations is 

shorter and communication is usually bilateral, are addressed within the context 

of liaison interpreting. In short consecutive interpreting, as it can be understood 



33 
 

 
 

from its name, shorter conversations take place and the interpreter performs 

interpreting the original conversation, which generally takes place bilaterally, 

consecutively without taking notes.These sub branches have been kept 

separate from the classical consecutive interpreting in terms of their distinctive 

features. Although these other types of consecutive interpreting were not given 

as much importance as classic consecutive interpreting in the academic sense 

in the early days, recently these types have also started to attract attention in 

academia. 

 

AIIC, which is the International Association of Conference of Conference 

Interpreters, defines the consecutive interpreting within the context of 

conference interpreting. Accordingly; 

 

"The interpreter who performs the consecutive interpreting stands at the same 

table with the delegates or on the speaker's platform and interprets the speech 

towards the target language after the speaker delivers it. The length of the 

conversation varies. For this reason, the translator can take notes."  

 

As it can be seen, this definition made by AIIC within the context of conference 

interpreting coincides with the classic definition of classic consecutive 

interpreting. There are also types of consecutive interpreting which are 

performed in non-conference settings and contexts. Consecutive translation can 

be defined in a wide range, "[...] from sentence by sentence to the short 

consecutive interpreting of intensive, long speeches on the basis of note-taking 

[...]" (Pöchhacker, 2011:305). 

1.3.5. Escort Interpreting 

Escort interpreting, as its name implies, is a sub branch of consecutive 

interpreting which aims to provide escort, and if needed interpreting, services 

through the interpreter to those who need interpreting service in case they do 

not stand at somewhere permanently. It is also called Accompanying 

interpreting (Doğan, 2017:66). It is generally a sub branch of consecutive 



34 
 

 
 

interpreting needed by those who travelling to or from a foreign country for the 

purposes such as business trip or health tourism and do not know the language 

or the culture of the country they travel.  

 

Those who need interpreting services are in most cases the people who can not 

communicate in the language of the country they travel. Residents can also 

employ escort interpreter for their guests that they will host, who do not know 

their language. The translator escorts the person to whom he/she provides 

interpreting services all the time and “[…] and when needed, he has to step in 

and be the mouth and ear of the person he escorts.” (Doğan, 2017:49) and this 

necessitates the translator being on the alert all the time. Because, the 

beginning of any communication requires the translator to step in. For this 

reason escort (accompanying) interpreter has to pay attention to the behaviors 

which will initiate communication. Escort (accompanying) interpreter interprets 

everything his clients says towards the target language and he also interprets 

everything said in the environment to him in the same way. By this way he 

enables the communication. When a person travelling to a foreign country for 

business purposes needs a need as such, he hires an escort (accompanying) 

interpreter. However, the translator not only provides services at the business 

part of this travel such as bilateral meetings and meetings. He accompanies the 

person to whom he provides interpreting services. This is an interpreting 

services covering a wide range of services from welcoming the customer at the 

airport to shopping, city travel and ordering meal. The main mission of the 

translator is to enable the smooth communication just as the other types of 

interpreting.  

1.3.6. Community Interpreting 

Community interpreting is becoming more and more necessary in today's 

multinational and different society. Community interpreting (CI) has become 

essential in today's world with many diverse communities and cultures. 

Community interpreting is the process of interpreting used in public service 

organizations, where a qualified interpreter aids people who do not speak the 



35 
 

 
 

institution's language in properly communicating with service providers. CI 

refers to the procedure of interpreting carried out in public institutions by 

qualified interpreters with the objective of assisting persons who do not speak 

the language to communicate with the citizens of the nation in which they 

reside. Due to a variety of elements, including manner of delivery, interaction 

scenario, amount of formality/orality present, level of interpreter engagement, 

status and responsibilities of players, level of professionalization, and power 

dynamics, CI is a different sort of interpreting. There are several ways in which 

one style of interpreting differs from another, including the manner of delivery, 

the context of the interaction, the amount of formality or orality present, the 

degree of interpreter engagement, the status and roles of the players, the level 

of professionalization, and power Dynamics (Pöllabauer, S., 2013, p.1) 

Community interpreting include providing interpretation in a variety of locations, 

such as clinics, hospitals, social service agencies, courtrooms, classrooms, and 

government buildings. CI is used in a variety of locations and contexts, including 

hospitals, courtrooms, government buildings, and educational facilities. The 

main objective of an interpreter is to help people who speak different languages 

communicate more easily so that everyone may get the services they require. 

The primary goal of the interpreter is to make it possible for people and/or 

organizations that speak different languages to communicate with one another. 

This is done to guarantee that everyone has access to the services they 

require. The requirement for access to high-quality public services and the 

growing variety of populations have given this form of interpreting substantial 

rise in relevance in recent years. Due to the diversity of the communities as well 

as the growing need for access to the services provided by the public, CI has 

grown greatly in importance in recent years. Community interpreters are 

expected to act ethically and professionally, refraining from interfering with 

conversation or offering any personal judgements or opinions. Community 

interpreting further calls for the employment of non-renditions