i Hacettepe University Graduate School of Social Sciences Department of Translation and Interpretation SHIFTS IN THE TRANSLATION OF SPEECH SCRIPTS: CASE STUDY ON HISTORICAL SPEECHES Berkan SEYHAN Master’s Thesis Ankara, 2021 ii iii SHIFTS IN THE TRANSLATION OF SPEECH SCRIPTS: CASE STUDY ON HISTORICAL SPEECHES Berkan SEYHAN Hacettepe University Graduate School of Social Sciences Department of Translation and Interpretation Master’s Thesis Ankara, 2021 i ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I have been able to complete this thesis thanks to the education I received from skilled lecturers from various universities and the support I got from valuable people in my life. First and foremost, I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my thesis advisor, Prof. Dr. Aymil Doğan, who has been a valuable lecturer to me during by undergraduate and post-graduate years. Completion of the thesis would not be achieved if it weren’t for her invaluable supervision and guidance. I have been able to fulfil my goals thanks to her wisdom and support. Alongside her academic contribution, she has also provided me with a better understanding of life and professional career. She has been and will be a role model for me with her enthusiasm for life and love for profession. I am also deeply grateful to Dr. Elif Ersözlü for her contribution to my thesis with her vast experience and Dr. Gökçen Hastürkoğlu for her supportive comments and for opening a new perspective to me with her enlightening ideas. I have developed a better understanding of the process of conducting research thanks to them. I am also indebted to Dr. Burak Özsöz for his informative and kind efforts to provide me with a better understanding of the subject matter of my thesis and Dr. Cihan Alan for his efforts to enlighten my way towards this study and for his continuous support which I received from the very moment I began studying in the Department of Translation and Interpretation at Hacettepe University as an undergraduate student. I also would like to express my gratitude to Dr. Hilal Erkazancı Durmuş for her assistance in improving the academic quality of my thesis and for her amazing lectures that she gave during the university years which enabled me to have a higher level of translation and interpreting skills. At this point, I would like to thank all the academicians in the department for providing me with a high-quality and inspiring education and training. The most special thanks are for my dear family who made tremendous efforts to see me as a successful person in life and who unconditionally supported me. I am here thanks to them. Also, I would like to thank my grandparents, Hanife and Yaşar, and my aunt, İlknur, who have supported me for my education since I was a child and wanted me to be a person of intellect. ii The loveliest gratitude goes to İzel Andıç, who was, maybe, more anxious than me to see the completion of this thesis. I would be drifting in desperation if it weren’t for her loving heart and never-ending support. I would like to thank my dear friend Utku Baydan, who has always been there for me for more than 10 years. He has supported me both in personal and in educational life. Today, I am the person I am because I have been a friend of such an excellent person. iii ABSTRACT SEYHAN, Berkan. Shifts in the Translation of Speech Scripts: Case Study on Historical Speeches, Master’s Thesis, Ankara, 2021. Public speaking has always been an important means of communication. People have expressed their ideas, tried to persuade other people, gave information on a specific topic via public speaking throughout the history. Events that have a historical importance lead to public speaking occasions. In fact, in some cases, such speeches lead to historically important events. Therefore, the contents of these speeches are important, not only for the people who speak the same language with the speaker but also for all people in the world. Hence, the translations of such speeches are also important. In the translation process, linguistic shifts may occur because of the differences between the languages. The concern of this study is to analyse the scripts of historical speeches and their translations and to find what sort of shifts take place during the translation process according to the theory proposed by John Catford in 1965. To do so, the scripts of speeches delivered by important people in the history, which are published in a book written by Ali Çimen and published by Timaş Yayınları (Timaş Publishing House) entitled “Tarihi Değiştiren Konuşmalar” (Speeches That Changed the History), and their original English texts from the website of www.americanrhetoric.com are used as the data collection materials. A comparative analysis is carried out between the ST-TT pairs, where various shifts are identified. After the shifts are identified, they are classified as ‘obligatory’ or ‘optional’ within the scope of the relevant literature. Finally, the translations are evaluated as ‘adequate’ or ‘acceptable’ as put by Gideon Toury in 1995. It is found that optional shifts by the translators make the TTs target- oriented and thus, ‘acceptable’. It is believed that this study will make a contribution to the literature regarding shifts in translation in historical speeches having given direction to a large scale of communities. Keywords: Historical speeches, translation of speech scripts, shifts of translation, adequacy and acceptability, obligatory or optional. iv ÖZET SEYHAN, Berkan. Konuşma Metinlerinin Çevirisindeki Kaymalar: Tarihi Konuşmalarda Vaka Çalışması, Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Ankara, 2021. Topluluk önünde konuşmak, önemli bir iletişim imkânı olarak süregelmiştir. İnsanlar, tarih boyunca topluluk önünde konuşarak fikirlerini ifade etmiş, diğerlerini ikna etmeye çalışmış, belirli bir konuda bilgi vermiştir. Tarihi öneme sahip olaylar da konuşma yapılmasına yol açmıştır. Öyle ki, kimi durumlarda da bu tarz konuşmalar tarihi öneme sahip olayların gerçekleşmesine neden olmuştur. Bu nedenle, bu konuşmaların içeriklerinin önemlidir ve bu önem sadece o konuşmayı yapan kişi ile aynı dili konuşan insanlar için değil aynı zamanda dünyadaki tüm insanlar için söz konusudur. Dolayısıyla, bu konuşmaların çevirilerinin de önemlidir. Çeviri sürecinde, diller arasındaki farklılıklardan dolayı dilbilimsel kaymalar meydana gelebilmektedir. Bu çalışmanın amacı, tarihi konuşmaların metinlerini ve bunların çevirilerini incelemek ve John Catford tarafından 1965 yılında ortaya konan kurama göre çeviri sürecinde ne tür kaymaların gerçekleştiğini tespit etmektir. Bu amaç doğrultusunda, Ali Çimen tarafından yazılan ve Timaş Yayınları tarafından basımı yapılan “Tarihi Değiştiren Konuşmalar” adlı kitapta yer alan tarihteki önemli kişiler tarafından yapılan konuşmaların metinleri ile www.americanrhetoric.com adlı internet sitesinden elde edilen İngilizce orijinal konuşma metinleri, veri toplama materyali olarak kullanılmıştır. KM-HM çiftleri arasında karşılaştırmalı bir analiz yapılarak bu analizde çeşitli kaymalar tespit edilmiştir. Kaymaların tespit edilmesinin ardından, tespit edilmiş olan kaymalar ilgili alanyazın kapsamında ‘zorunlu’ veya ‘seçimlik’ olarak sınıflandırılmıştır. Son olarak, 1995 yılında Gideon Toury tarafından ortaya koyulduğu üzere incelenen çevirilerin ‘yeterli’ veya ‘kabul edilebilir’ olup olmadıkları değerlendirilmiştir. Çevirmenlerin yaptıkları seçimlik kaymaların KM’leri hedef odaklı ve böylelikle, ‘kabul edilebilir’ kıldığı bulunmuştur. Bu çalışmada geniş ölçekli topluluklara yön veren tarihi konuşma metinlerinin çevirisinde görülen kaymaların çalışılmış olmasının alanyazınına katkı getireceğine inanılmaktadır. Anahtar Sözcükler: Tarihi konuşmalar, konuşma metinlerinin çevirisi, çeviri kaymaları, kabul edilebilirlik ve yeterlilik, zorunlu ve seçimlik. v TABLE OF CONTENTS KABUL VE ONAY……………………………………………………………………...i YAYIMLAMA VE FİKRİ MÜLKİYET HAKLARI BEYANI…………………….ii ETİK BEYAN………………………………………………………………………….iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS…………………………………………………………...iv ABSTRACT……………………………………………………………...………….…vi TURKISH ABSTRACT………………………………………………………………vii TABLE OF CONTENTS…………………………………………………………….viii LIST OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS………………………………......xi LIST OF TABLES………………………………………………………………….....xii LIST OF FIGURES………………………………………………………………….xiii INTRODUCTION……………………………………………………………………...1 CHAPTER I: THEORETICAL BACKGROUND……………………………….....16 1.1 TRANSLATION AND SPEECH SCRIPTS……………………………..16 1.1.1 Translation and the Concept of Equivalence……………………..16 1.1.2 Speech Scripts and Translation Thereof………………………….19 1.1.3 A Genre Analysis Approach……………………………………...22 1.2 SHIFTS…………………………………………………………………….26 1.2.1 An Overview……………………………………………………...26 1.2.2 Catford’s Model…………………………………………………..29 vi 1.2.2.1 Level Shifts……………………………………………..30 1.2.2.2 Category Shifts…………………………........................31 1.2.2.2.1 Structural Shifts………………………………31 1.2.2.2.2 Class Shifts…………………………………...32 1.2.2.2.3 Unit (or Rank) Shifts…………………………33 1.2.2.2.4 Intra-system Shifts…………………………...33 1.2.3 Optional and Obligatory Shifts…………………………………..34 1.2.3.1 Obligatory Shifts……………………………………….35 1.2.3.2 Optional Shifts…………………………………………36 1.3 GIDEON TOURY AND DESCRIPTIVE TRANSLATION STUDIES………………………………………………………………………37 1.3.1 Descriptive Translation Studies…………………………………..38 1.3.2 Norms……………………………………………………………..39 1.3.2.1 Initial Norms……………………………………………41 1.3.2.2 Preliminary Norms and Operational Norms…………….42 1.4 RELEVANT STUDIES…………………………………………………...43 CHAPTER II: METHODOLOGY……………………….………………………….48 2.1 DESIGN OF THE STUDY………………………………………………..48 2.2 DATA COLLECTION MATERIALS…………………………………...48 2.3 PROCEDURE……………………………………………………………..51 2.4 DATA ANALYSIS AND EVALUATION………………………………52 CHAPTER III: FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION…………….……………………..54 vii 3.1 CONTEXTUAL INFORMATION ABOUT THE SPEECHES……….55 3.1.1 The Speech by Abraham Lincoln…………………………………55 3.1.2 The Speech by Franklin Roosevelt……………………………….55 3.1.3 The Speech by Winston Churchill………………………………..56 3.1.4 The Speech by George C. Marshall………………………………56 3.1.5 The Speech by John F. Kennedy………………………………….57 3.2 LEVEL SHIFTS…………………………………………………………...57 3.3 STRUCTURAL SHIFTS…………………………………………………62 3.4 CLASS SHIFTS…………………………………………………………...70 3.5 UNIT SHIFTS……………………………………………………………..81 3.6 INTRA-SYSTEM SHIFTS………………………………………………..92 3.7 OVERALL EVALUATION FOR ‘ADEQUACY’ AND ‘ACCEPTABILITY’………………………………………………………….97 3.8 SPEECH SCRIPTS WITHIN THE SCOPE OF GENRE AND TEXT TYPES………………………………………………………………………...102 CONCLUSION…………………………………………..…………………………..104 BIBLIOGRAPHY……………………………………………………………………114 APPENDIX I: ORIGINALITY REPORT.…………………………...……………121 APPENDIX II: ETHICS BOARD WAIVER FORM..………………………...….123 viii LIST OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS Adj.: Adjective Adv.: Adverb DTS: Descriptive Translation Studies Prep.: Preposition SL: Source Language SoT: Shift of Translation SOV: Subject + Object + Verb ST: Source Text SVO: Subject + Verb + Object TL: Target Language TS: Translation Studies TT: Target Text ix LIST OF TABLES Table 1. The Speeches Utilised………………………………………………………...49 Table 2. Numbers of Level Shifts Identified…………………………………………..58 Table 3. Frequency of Level Shifts as Percentages……………………………………59 Table 4. Numbers of Structural Shifts Identified……………………………………...62 Table 5. Frequency of Structural Shifts as Percentages………………………………..63 Table 6. Numbers of Class Shifts Identified……..…………………………………….71 Table 7. Frequency of Class Shifts as Percentages.……………………………………72 Table 8. Numbers of Unit Shifts Identified……………………………………………81 Table 9. Frequency of Unit Shifts as Percentages.…………………………………….82 Table 10. Numbers of Intra-System Shifts Identified………………………………….92 Table 11. Frequency of Intra-System Shifts as Percentages …………………………..93 Table 12. Total Number of Shifts Identified in All Five Speeches……………………97 Table 13. Frequency of the All Type of Shifts as Percentages………………………...99 x LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1. Diagram of Shifts of Translation…………………………………………….28 Figure 2. The Distribution of All Shifts………………………………………………107 1 INTRODUCTION Speech delivery has always been a frequently used means of communication with the public for prominent people in the society like leaders or state administrators. Speech delivery dates back to prehistoric times and has been facilitated when a person of authority or opinion wants to address the crowd about some issues. Speakers might want to give information, provide an argument or try to persuade their audience, which has always been the case for the history of humankind. For example, declarations of war, encouragement speeches, and inviting people to act have been delivered to the public via speeches. Additionally, in conferences, key-note speakers and presenters address the topic of the meeting and give information on that specific topic, respectively. In the same vein, leaders of various countries address their nations via their speeches. Thus, there are abundant examples of the places where speeches are delivered and this situation demonstrates that delivering a speech is important in terms of communication with a mass of people. Since the act of communication is vital, one might think that a speaker should be prepared for his/her speech before it is delivered. In this sense, speakers either prepare their own speech scripts or make them prepared by people who are professionals in this area. In fact, using professionals to prepare speech scripts demonstrates the importance of the act of speech delivery. One can suggest that delivering a speech in front of the public has its own characteristics and challenges, which make people hire professionals to prepare them. Hence, texts are not divided into two as spoken or written text. In fact, Gregory and Carroll (1978) further differentiate them as “written to be spoken”, “written to be spoken as if not written” and “spoken to be written” (p. 47). The last category is exemplified by Doğan (2017a) where she states that political speeches are published in form in which they were delivered which, in fact, is case in this study where the data collection materials are transcriptions of real speeches, which are of a political nature, as well. However, it should be noted that the main purpose of these speeches is not to be published, yet they play such an important role in giving the society direction that they are preferred to be published. In the end, it seems necessary to underscore the fact that speech scripts need to be considered as a different type of text 2 on their own, so the translation process of such texts might yield various issues that require different strategies for tackling. In addition to the abovementioned distinct characteristics of speech scripts, there are other issues that need to be taken into consideration. For example, speeches are to be delivered in front of a group of people and thus, it has its own rhetoric and rendition characteristics. Addressing a group of people, or a nation, has its own requirements, which makes the speeches differ from other types of written texts. For instance, a political speech, which is a quite relevant example as the data collection materials of this thesis are of a political nature, relates to political discourse, political activities and political ideas and addresses a wider public (Hansen, 2010). Doğan (2017b) states that such a speech “has a special style of language use” and “style and wording of a text… will be different when the same content appears in a letter, in an agreement, or in a business contract”, which means that each type of text has its own characteristics (p. 23). Therefore, it can be suggested that speeches have completely different characteristics and cannot be compared with other types of texts such as texts where style is highly important. In other words, speeches have their own characteristics, which can be observed from their scripts. As far as the speeches that are important in the history are concerned, it is possible to state that they can either be of a national nature, or an international nature, the latter being the focal point of this thesis. Internationally important speeches are generally delivered by people who are also important in their era. They can be presidents of states or leaders or anybody who have authority or influence over the people (Eshbaugh-Soha, 2010). Therefore, the addressee of these speeches was the people of the relevant country, and possibly, historians who were intrigued by their content for research purposes. Furthermore, such speeches might be important for people from other countries who cannot understand the language in which that specific speech is delivered. This is the place where the act of translation comes to the fore. If one says that speeches in the history are important internationally, then it can be said that their translations have at least the same level of importance. From this point on, this thesis carries out the analysis on historically important speech scripts and their translations. 3 As mentioned above, speeches are one of the most important means of communication for prominent people in a country and when people from other countries wanted know about the content of a given speech, they might need translation. The act of translation is a type of communication (Fat’hi and Akbari, 2012). Thus, the translation of these speeches enables communication between nations. Furthermore, translation of such speeches might not only have a communicative purpose, but it may be a source of information in addition to their call for action, or some other purpose. When we focus on the transfer of these speeches to other languages, we can consider two means of transfer: they were either interpreted or translated from the written texts, namely their scripts. Within this scope, the scripts of historical speeches are utilised for the purposes of these speeches because a remarkable importance is attached to them as they give direction to a mass of people, both at a national and international level. The translation of speech scripts requires a different approach than translation of other texts that come from the written tradition like novels, stories, scientific articles or laws and regulations. Speech scripts have different characteristics when compared to the other types of written texts in a similar vein where a legal regulation is different from a novel, which can be explained by the model put forth by Reiss in 1977 (as cited in Munday, 2008). According Reiss (1977), there are four types of texts: informative, expressive, operative and audiomedial (as cited in Munday, 2008). While informative texts can be explained as “communication of facts”, expressive texts can be called “creative composition” and operative texts are to “induce behavioural response” (Munday, 2008, p. 72). The last type of text is audiomedial texts which support other three types with music, images, etc. Within this scope, the proposition that speeches are different from other types of texts could be considered meaningful since a speech can be categorised as an operative and informative text while a regulation is purely informative and a poem is purely expressive according to the model proposed by Reiss in 1977 (as cited in Munday, 2008). In addition, there is abundant research carried out to demonstrate the characteristics of speeches, particularly political speeches, such as implicitness, reciprocity, politeness, etc. (See Decoske and White, 2010; Toshioka, 2014; and Doğan, 2017b). Therefore, translation strategies for speech scripts might be adapted in accordance with their characteristics and considering the text types, which is also suggested by Reiss in 1977 (as cited in Munday, 2008). Accordingly, while the 4 information value is protected in the translation of an informative text, for instance, the function of the text should be preserved when translating an operative text. In addition to the text-type-oriented approach, a genre analysis approach is also important because text types relate to the form and content while genre relates to the communicative function (Bhatia, 1993). Wen (2004) states that genre analysis in the process of translation makes contributions to the performance by translators and interpreters, which enable them to better grasp the communicative purpose of the ST and better structure the TT in line with the target expectations. Similarly, Hatim and Mason (1990) argue that genre of a given ST might influence translators’ decision- making process. Within the scope of this thesis, the communicative function of the speech scripts, which are used as data collection materials in this thesis, is to call for action, provide information to the addressees and creating emotional ties. However, it should be noted that these functions might change in the TT because a genre shift and a text type shift might occur during the translation process of such texts because they are more of an informative nature for the target receiver instead of calling them to take action. An informative function weighs more than the operative function in the translation of political speeches, which suggest that the original genre is shifted in the TT in terms of the communicative purpose of the text (Danni, 2020). That’s why, a genre analysis approach is considered to be a key aspect for this thesis since, as suggested by Rogers (2015), knowledge for ST and TT genres are vital for the translation process (as cited in Biel, 2017). As mentioned above, speeches have their unique characteristics and their scripts demonstrate the same characteristics since they are the written form of these speeches (Toshioka, 2014). In other words, features of oral rendition can be found in speech scripts, so the translation of such texts requires different strategies. Moreover, they have a different type of style and rhetoric. Such speeches might be intended to create an influence upon the receiver, for instance, as is proposed by Reiss in 1977 under the title of operative texts, whose purpose is to call the receiver to act (as cited in Munday, 2008). According to Reiss (1977), translation strategies need to be adapted according to the text types (as cited in Munday, 2008). Considering that the speech scripts are the representations of originally delivered speeches and that speeches are a different type of text, one can argue that the translation of such texts is different from the translation of 5 other written texts. During the translation process of such texts, the translators might come across with expressions whose full equivalent cannot be found in the Target Language (TL), as this is also the case with other types of texts (Munday, 2008). Hence, there will be divergences; namely shifts, from the Source Language (SL) or the Source Text (ST), which is demonstrated by Catford in 1965. However, these shifts might be different from those found in other types of text as mentioned above, which is the critical point in carrying out an analysis on speech scripts. Having developed an understanding with regard to the speech scripts and their translations, the next thing to touch upon is the shifts of translation (SoT) since this study focuses on shifts in the translation of such texts based on the theory proposed by Catford in 1965, which is a linguistics-based translation theory. According to Catford (1965), there is a level of ‘formal correspondence’ between the two languages involved in the process of translation and when this formal correspondence is not established at some point, shifts occur. The concept of shift of translation is vital for the field of Translation Studies (TS) in that it might demonstrate both the linguistic differences between the languages and the preferences of the translators, and it basically means changes that occur when going from one language to another. In fact, Hatim and Munday (2004) states that translators have to make changes during the process of translation since there is no typical system between the languages involved. Thus, shifts are quite common in the act of translation and they are accepted as one of the “universals of translation” among the scholars of TS, meaning that shifts are present in every translation (Hatim & Munday, 2004). Moreover, Fat'hi and Akbari (2012) states that the act of translation entails shifts one way or the other. A systematic analysis of shifts of translation for a given ST and TT pair is thought to yield a fruitful study where the relations between the two languages involved, tendencies of translators and process of translation for the specific text type are revealed. Indeed, Munday (2008) underlined that the purpose of a study on shifts is to describe the phenomenon of translation, meaning that such a study is to shed light on the process or product of translation in order to gain insight into such phenomenon. When it comes to a descriptive study, the main purpose of it is to explain the findings of the study (Toury, 1995). So, this study will compare the ST and TT pairs in order to come up with descriptive and explanatory results with regard to the shifts of translation 6 in historical speech scripts. However, it should be underlined that studying shifts does not have anything to do with finding errors or failures but with the formulation of explanatory hypotheses with regard to the phenomenon of translation, as put by Toury (1995). In other words, a descriptive and explanatory study on shifts might shed light on the process of translation. In fact, Hatim and Munday (2004) states that the analysis of shifts of translation is an objective method to see the changes that occurred during the process of translation. Hence, a systematic analysis of shifts is necessary to shed light on the process of translation for a given circumstance. Indeed, Popovič (1970) states that a study on shifts might provide insights into the general system of translation; that is, how the process of translation works. Thus, it is deemed important to carry out an analysis of SoT on the historical speech scripts because such an analysis may provide an understanding of the translation process of historical and political speeches as suggested by the scholars mentioned above. Within this scope, the purpose of this thesis is to identify the shifts based on the theory proposed by John Catford in 1965 in the translations of the speeches delivered by important people in the history from English into Turkish, and to shed light on the frequency of the type of shifts that might have occurred. Then, the second step of analysis is to classify these shifts as ‘optional’ and ‘obligatory’ within the scope of the relevant literature where an ‘optional shift’ is defined as the one that is caused by the preferences or the style of the translator and the ‘obligatory shift’ is defined as the one that is caused by the systemic and linguistic differences between the languages involved in the translation process (Toury, 1995; Medidan, 2015; and Al-Timen, 2016). Finally, the translations of historical speeches are classified as ‘adequate’ or ‘acceptable’ based on the model proposed by Gideon Toury in 1995 in line with the shifts and their optional and obligatory nature. Doing so, this thesis tries to shed light on the process of translation of speech scripts, which are of a historical and political nature, because, as Fat'hi and Akbari (2012) stated, the establishment of individual shifts will eventually lead to the establishment of translation norms. It is believed that this study differs from other studies in the area of shifts of translation in that it dwells on a different type of text; namely speech scripts, as it was seen in the literature review that studies carried out on translation shifts mainly focus on literary works and not on speech texts (See Karimnia and Kalantari, 2011; Fat’hi and Akbari, 2012; Herman, 2014; Widarwati, 7 2015; Al-Timen, 2016; Hijjo and Kadhim, 2017; Nashwan, 2018; and Altwaijri, 2019). However, it is believed that shifts are found not only in literary or legal texts, for instance, but also in such oral deliveries, and it is seen that the phenomenon of shift of translation is inevitable for the translation process because it is accepted as one of the “universals of translation” by various researchers working in this area (Hatim & Munday, 2004). Toury’s (1995) expressions further strengthen this fact: “the occurrences of shifts have long been acknowledged as a true universal of translation.” (p. 57). Within the abovementioned framework, Introduction of this thesis provides an introduction to the issue and give information on the driving force behind this study; in other words, the problem situation. It further provides the research questions together with the aim and the importance of the study. Finally, limitations and assumptions of the study is provided within this chapter. Relevant definitions can also be found in this chapter. In Chapter I, theoretical background for the thesis is provided, which includes the general approach to the issue of shifts in the area of Translation Studies and the main theory of shifts that this study is based on, which is preceded by a general framework for TS and the concept of speech scripts. Finally, the relevant research that is carried out in this field is provided. It is intended that this chapter provides all the relevant theoretical information required to develop a comprehensive understanding of the subject matter of the present thesis. In addition, a genre analysis approach is provided in this chapter by providing information on the genre of political speeches in order to provide a better understanding of the nature of the data collection materials of this thesis. Chapter II dwells on the methodology of this thesis, in other words, how these shifts are identified, how they are classified in accordance with the relevant literature, and what the steps of data analysis are. This includes the procedure followed throughout the study, the design, data collection materials and the methods of analysis of the thesis. Chapter III of the thesis includes the case study where the identification of shifts took place and its findings, the relevant frequency tables and the analysis and discussion based on the relevant literature. Sample ST and TT pairs together with back translations 8 will be given in order to provide a representative selection. This chapter also includes the discussion of the findings of the study as the results are provided. Conclusion of the study presents the conclusions from the thesis. Answers are provided to the research questions that are presented in the Chapter I. Finally, suggestions for further studies and recommendations are provided. PROBLEM SITUATION Delivering a speech to the public has always been the case for state representatives to communicate with their nation. As seen in history, such speeches were delivered on any kind of occasion from elections to declarations of war. In addition, it is not only state representatives but also publicly known people who make use of such public speeches. In fact, it can be seen in the history that such speeches, either delivered by the state representatives or other publicly known people, had significant impact on the people. These speeches had importance not only for the people speaking the same language but also for other people from different countries because it might have had an impact on the social, economic or even daily lives of the people from all over the world. Considering the abovementioned international importance of speeches, it is possible to state that translation of these speeches is also important because translation of such texts will transfer the content from one language to others. In addition to the understanding that historical speeches are important for many reasons as explained above, one should acknowledge, from the perspective of Translation Studies, that speeches are a different type of text, and so are their scripts. Although the speech scripts seem to be written texts, they do not demonstrate all the characteristics of a written text, particularly in the case of this thesis where the speech scripts are the written form the original delivery. Furthermore, they cannot be considered as solely verbal texts since they also do not demonstrate the characteristics of an impromptu speech, for instance, because they are highly likely to be studied on previously. Within this context, the analysis of the translations of those speeches, from the aspect of shifts of translation, is considered to be important as it will shed light on the process of translation of a different type of text. It is seen in the relevant literature that there are 9 various and abundant comparative studies on various types of text; however, researches that specifically focus on verbal texts in this context are not found in the literature review that was carried out. The systematic analysis of such texts will provide insight into the process of translation and such insight can be useful for both professional translators and trainees of translation; namely, the students: Professionals might realise different translatorial aspects so that they can make use of shifts to render better translation to improve their professional skills and similarly, students can develop advanced translation skills even before they start practicing the profession, either as translators or interpreters. Therefore, it is considered important to carry out a systematic analysis on this type of texts. On the other hand, shifts of translation (SoT) are considered as one of the universals of translation, which means that they somehow are found in each and every translation (Hatim & Munday, 2004). A systematic analysis of shifts can yield fruitful results with regard to the process of translation as they will shed light on the procedures used by the translators to tackle with the problems they face and on discrepancies between the two languages involved in the process of translation. Using such fruitful results, this study will be able to describe and explain the phenomenon of translation of historical speech scripts, which is believed to fill a gap in the relevant literature. Furthermore, both professionals and students can improve their translation skills seeing the relations between the two languages involved in the process of translation. Hence, identification of shifts of translation is considered to be an important study for the improvement of both the profession itself and the performance and skills of translators and interpreters. Within this scope, the main problem encountered is that studies focusing on SoT in speeches or speech scripts are not encountered in the literature review that was carried out. Curious about the situation of SoT in the translation of speech scripts, the researcher seeks to satisfy this curiosity by analysing historical speech scripts, which are also of a political nature, for SoT based on the model proposed by Catford in 1965 and to try to make a contribution in this area. At this point, it should be stated that the main objective of this study is to try and shed light on the process of translation of historical speech scripts from the aspect of SoT by carrying out systematic analysis based on the literature posited by the prominent scholars who carried out studies in the area of SoT. 10 AIM OF THE STUDY The aim of this study is to analyse historical speech scripts, which are also of a political nature, to find SoT based on the model proposed by John Catford in 1965. The rationale for selecting historical and political speeches is their importance in terms of the developments in the past and them being well-prepared and well-structured speeches for analysis. When it comes to the rationale for selecting the theory proposed by Catford in 1965, the researcher found this theory systematic enough to be applied for the purposes of this thesis. The second aim of this thesis is to determine if the shifts identified are ‘optional’ or ‘obligatory’ based on the relevant literature (See e.g. Toury, 1995; Vinay and Darbelnet, 1995; Medadian, 2015; and Al-Timen, 2016). Following this second step of analysis, the final aim of this thesis is to classify the translations of the historical speech scripts as ‘adequate’ and ‘acceptable’ based on the model proposed by Toury in 1995, according to which the point of a descriptive study is to shed light on the general situation of translation and norms, the latter being the rules and the environment in which the translation function (Toury, 1995). Therefore, one of the purposes of this study is to shed light on the process of translation of speech scripts from the aspect of SoT because, as is explained above, a systematic analysis of SoT can be utilised to describe and explain the act of translation. From a holistic point of view for all the mentioned purposes of this thesis, the fact that limited studies in relation to SoT and speech scripts were encountered in the literature review that was carried out is also one of the driving forces behind this study as the researcher has a curiosity about the situation of SoT in historical and political speeches based on the theory proposed by Catford in 1965. It is believed that the results derived from this study will provide insight into the process of translation of speech scripts and will be of a guidance nature for those who attempt to translate or interpret speech scripts or speeches themselves, respectively. In addition, it is believed that the study will make a positive contribution to the relevant literature. 11 IMPORTANCE OF THE STUDY All professions in the world have their own difficulties which require particular solutions and skills. Similarly, the process of translation has its own difficulties, one of which is the differences between the languages, be it cultural or linguistic. As is stated by Al-Zoubi and Al-Hassnawi (2001), the translator faces a variety of cultural, stylistic and linguistic difficulties. Popovič (1970) also states that the process of translation is not direct, and has its own problems. Hence, a translator is highly likely to come across a set of problems during the process of translation. One of such problems is linguistic differences between the languages, which is the starting point of the curiosity that paved the way to this research. Today, it is now accepted that there are a series of differences between the languages spoken across the world, even if they belong to the same language family. Indeed, Hatim and Munday (2004) state that “systemic differences between the languages must be accepted” (p. 29). It can thus be stated that there are various differences between languages and translators have to overcome specific challenges during the process of translation that arise from such discrepancies. In response to these problems, while translators have developed various methods and strategies, scholars made research into these strategies or revealed new strategies in addition to discovering procedures that by- pass these problems. One of these scholars, John Catford (1965), coined the term of shifts in order to identify the way the translators overcome these problems. According to his definition of this term, shifts are “departures from formal correspondence in the process of going from the SL to the TL” (Catford, 1965). Accordingly, he assumes a level of correspondence between the languages and when this correspondence is not ensured, shifts occur. One can thus infer that shifts are changes that are involved in the process of translation that occur due to the linguistic differences between the languages. Furthermore, it is not only John Catford who carried out studies in this area. Jean Vinay and Jean Paul Darbelnet (1995), Popovič (1970), van Leuven-Zwart (1984), Baker (1992) and Toury (1995) are also among the prominent scholars working in this area. They all tried to define and identify shifts of translation in the process of translation. Each and every one of these researches provided great contributions to the area and studies on singular instances further contributed to the area. However, studies that are 12 specifically focused on the translation of speech scripts for the identification of SoT based on the theory of Catford proposed in 1965 are not encountered in the literature review that was carried out for the purposes of this thesis. In fact, the theory itself was put forth for the translation of literary texts, so the application of this theory on a different type of text (spoken texts) is considered to be valuable. As is seen from the attempts and efforts of many scholars who worked in the area of SoT, the issue of shifts is important in the field of Translation Studies. Shifts are inevitable parts of the process of translation and they can be identified in each and every pair of ST and TT. Therefore, one can infer that a study that focuses on shifts of translation can be considered important in that it will shed light on the process of translation from the aspect of a given ST-TT pair and of a given language pair. As is put forth, various studies have been carried out in this area and studying shifts is important in understanding the process of translation. Given the scarcity of research carried out in the area of shifts in speech scripts, the present study is believed to bring more contributions to the area as it tries to fill a gap in the literature. The importance of this thesis derives from the fact that it carries out a research to identify shifts based on the model proposed by Catford in 1965 in historical and political speech scripts and it tries to fill a gap in the relevant literature by analysing speech scripts to identify SoT. In addition, shifts’ being important occurrences in understanding the process of translation makes a further contribution to the importance of this study because the analysis that this thesis seeks to carry out is thought to shed light on a scarcely-studied area under such an important area as SoT. Finally, applying a theory which was first put forth for literary translation on spoken texts is also considered important since it is believed that the application of this theory on spoken texts will demonstrate that it is also applicable in this area. It is believed that this will pave the way for further studies in the area of SoT in different types of texts. RESEARCH QUESTIONS (1) What are the shifts that occur in the translation of speech scripts from English into Turkish within the framework of the model of Catford? 13 (2) What is the frequency of these shifts? (3) Are these shifts the translators’ preference, or are they obligatory due to language restraints or any other cause? (3.1) Depending on the obligatory and optional nature of the shifts, are these translations adequate or acceptable based on Toury’s model? LIMITATIONS (1) Only the speeches published in a book by Ali Çimen entitled "Tarihi Değiştiren Konuşmalar" (The Speeches that Changed the History) which was published by Timaş Publishing House (Timaş Yayınları) in 2015 and which are found eligible for the study in question are used as the material of the study. No other versions of the same speeches are used for the purposes of this study. (2) Only the source texts found on the website of www.americanrhetoric.com are taken into account within the scope of the study and no other script or translation thereof is used. (3) The corpus of the study is limited to the shifts that might be observed in the translations of historical speeches found in the book by Ali Çimen. (4) The directionality in the language pair of the speeches in this thesis is from English into Turkish. (5) Back translations provided under Chapter IV are limited to the TTs provided there as examples and they are structured in a manner which can represent each type of shift. (6) Examples provided under Chapter IV might include more than one type of shift but only relevant one/ones are demonstrated under the relevant heading. ASSUMPTIONS (1) The target texts found in the book by Ali Çimen are assumed to be translated by professionals who are fully competent in both source and target languages and cultures. 14 (2) It is assumed that the extracts are representative of the shifts which are identified in the case study and not presented one by one individually in the thesis. DEFINITIONS Acceptability: One of the initial norms under the theory proposed Gideon Toury in 1995. If the target norms predominate and the translation is TT-oriented, then the translation is acceptable and acceptability is ensured (Toury, 1995). Adequacy: One of the initial norms under the theory proposed Gideon Toury in 1995. If the translation is ST-oriented, which means that norms of the SL predominate, then the translation is considered adequate and adequacy is ensured (Toury, 1995). Content word: This term refers to words which have a meaning. They are also called as lexical words, and nouns and verbs can be examples of such words (Nunnan, 1993). Equivalence: As Kenny (1998) put, equivalence is the relationship between an ST and a TT by which it can be ensured that the TT is the translation of that given ST (as cited in Serbina, 2015). Formal Correspondence: “A formal correspondent is any TL category (unit- class, structure, element of structure, etc.) which can be said to occupy, as nearly as possible, the ‘same’ place in the ‘economy’ of the TL as the given SL category occupies in the SL.” (Catford, 1965, p. 32). Function word: This term refers to words which have a task to fulfil in a sentence and have little or no meaning. They are also called as grammatical words, and prepositions, pronouns and articles can be examples of such words (Nunnan, 1993). Obligatory shift: Obligatory shifts are all the mandatory shifts which are dictated by the structural, linguistic, cultural, etc. differences between the two languages involved (Al- Zoubi & Al-Hassnawi, 2001). Optional shift: An optional shift is a shift which is up to the selection of the translator and dictated by translators’ personal or stylistic choices (Al- Zoubi & Al-Hassnawi, 2001). It means that there are more than one alternatives and the translators opts for one based on his or her own strategies and norms. 15 Shift of Translation: “Departure from formal correspondence in the process of going from the Source Language to the Target Language” (Catford, 1965, p. 73). Textual Equivalence: “Any TL text or portion of text which is observed […] to be equivalent of a given SL text or portion of text” (Catford, 1965, p. 27). 16 CHAPTER I THEORETICAL BACKGROUND This chapter dwells on the theoretical background of this thesis which deals with the Shifts of Translation (SoT) on historical speech scripts. A general framework for translation and translation of speech scripts within the boundaries of historical and political speeches will be followed by detailed information on SoT including optional and obligatory shifts, which make up the first and second step of analysis, respectively. After that, Descriptive Translation Studies (DTS) is addressed with reference to the model proposed by Gideon Toury in 1995, which makes up the third step of the analysis carried out for this thesis. Finally, studies that focus on SoT and translation of speech scripts, or speeches as they are rendered are included in this chapter under the title of relevant studies. 1.1 TRANSLATION AND SPEECH SCRIPTS 1.1.1 Translation and the Concept of Equivalence The act and theory of translation date back to prehistoric times. Cicero, who lived from 106 to 43 BCE, was one of the translators who also dealt with the theory of translation (Munday, 2008). In that era, scholars were discussing whether a translation should be rendered with a ‘word-for-word’ or a ‘sense-for-sense’ approach, the former being the replacement of exact words while the latter being the sense or content’s being translated into the SL (Munday, 2008). Early scholars of translation mainly discussed about this matter and such discussions were mainly prescriptive; in other words, the discussions were to teach and demonstrate what a translation should be and how a translator should translate. For instance, John Dryden (1680) proposed three methods for translation which are ‘metaphrase’, ‘paraphrase’ and ‘imitation’ and he criticised translators who adopted metaphrase strategy because it is the word-for-word approach and he argued that sense-for-sense translation should be adopted, which is the paraphrase according to his categorisation (as cited in Munday, 2008). 17 With the developments in the research into the phenomenon of translation, the focal point of studies also changed. First, scholars tried to define the act of translation and one of these definitions is still accepted in today’s world: The act of translation is divided into three types by Roman Jakobson (1959): The three types of translation are intralingual, interlingual and intersemiotic translation (as cited in Munday, 2008). Munday states that intralingual translation is also called rewording. For instance, when you translate from an older version of Turkish (e.g. Ottoman Turkish) into contemporary Turkish, this can be called as an intralingual translation. In other words, the translator is translating 'within' that specific language. On the other hand, interlingual translation is the transfer of verbal content into another language. That is, interlingual translation is realised between two different languages (e.g. from Spanish into Japanese). Finally, the intersemiotic translation is the transfer of content between different sign systems. To illustrate, when a book is converted into a movie, this can be called an intersemiotic translation. Within this scope, it should be noted that the data collection materials of this thesis consists of interlingual translations. Based on the definition of interlingual translation, which is the case in this thesis, one can infer that some kind of correspondence or equality should be present between the SL and TL in order to render the translation. From a scientific point of view, this concept is called as ‘equivalence’, which is also another point of research following the works to define the act of translation. The concept of equivalence is an important term for this study as it is related to the differences between languages and SoT. As Kenny (1998) put, equivalence is the relationship between an ST and a TT by which it can be ensured that the TT is the translation of that given ST (as cited in Serbina, 2015). According to Catford (1995), equivalence is discovered by way of comparison and that is why, a comparative analysis is carried out within the scope of this thesis. Furthermore, in Jakobson's view (1959), there is no full equivalence between units of two languages and he sees equivalence as a result of differences between languages (as cited in Munday, 2008). Hence, one can infer that the concept of equivalence is related to the concept of SoT because shifts are results of differences between the languages. Equivalence is such an important concept for translation theory that it has been addressed by many scholars such as Nida and Koller (Munday, 2008). While Nida (1964) made a distinction between formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence, a 18 distinction between form and content, Koller (1979) coined the terms of correspondence and equivalence (as cited in Munday, 2008). In addition, Nida (1964) is one of the first scholars who called academic works on the act of translation a ‘science’ (Munday, 2008). In fact, with the developments in the area, James Holmes called this area the Translation Studies with his work entitled “The Name and Nature of Translation Studies” in 1970, which was first presented in a linguistics conference (Munday, 2008). It might sound interesting that the discipline of Translation Studies received its name in a linguistics conference; however, the developments in the area of translation studies first produced from the area of linguistics. In fact, John Catford was one of the prominent scholars who carried out linguistic studies in relation to translation and he put forth the theory of shifts of translation in 1965 in his work entitled “A Linguistic Theory of Translation”, whose details are provided in the sections below. He also defined the act of translation in his word and it can be seen from this definition that it is based on equivalence: "translation is replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language" (Catford, 1995, p. 20). Therefore, it should be noted once again that the concept of equivalence is vital in terms of shifts of translation because when equivalence is not found, shifts occur. It can be seen that the theory put forth by Catford in 1965 is focused on the translation product, which is the translated text itself, and the process, which is the translation process. However, he is not the only one who focused on product or the process of translation: Vinay and Darbelnet (1995) proposed seven different translation techniques and Popovič (1970) also studied shifts of translation. The importance of working on the product and the process of translation lies in the fact the translation studies evolved into a descriptive discipline in the following stages, which is led by Gideon Toury (Munday, 2008). As is mentioned above, the first works on translation were prescriptive, meaning that they are to show and teach how to do something; however, as the area developed, scholars also carried out descriptive studies where the product and the process of translation is analysed and comprehensive deductions were made as a result of these studies. According to Toury (1995), descriptive studies have "the possibility of supplying exhaustive descriptions and explanations..." (p. 16). He further states that 19 shifts of translation are good examples in order to carry out a descriptive study since they demonstrate the relations between the languages and sheds light on the process of translation (Toury, 1995). That’s why, this study embraces a descriptive methodology to identify and explain shifts. There were also other developments within the TS. For example, there were functional theories, one of which is the Skopos theory proposed by Vermeer and Reiss in 1984 (as cited in Munday, 2008). According to this theory, every process of translation has a ‘skopos’ (a Greek work meaning aim or purpose) and the TT is determined according to this skopos (Munday, 2008). Another example can be the work by Even-Zohar (1978), where it is stated that translation needs to be conceptualised within a series of systems which is called as the polysystem theory (as cited in Munday, 2008). With this theory, the act of translation is considered together with the system in which it functions as a whole instead of being considered as a mere text and thus, a dynamic approach was put forth (Munday, 2008). Following these developments, paradigm shifts took place within the TS: first there was the cultural turn, as a result of which the culture in which the texts are posited gained importance, and then there was the ideological turn, as a result of which ideological elements gained importance (Munday, 2008). Lefevere (1992) states that a translation process might be influenced from the professionals (critics, teachers, reviewers, etc.), patronage (persons and institutions having authority) and the dominant poetics within the system (as cited in Munday, 2008). Similar developments followed and TS has evolved into what we know today following many academic research into this area such as gender and translation, sociology in translation, post- colonial translation and so forth. 1.1.2 Speech Scripts and Translation Thereof The concept of speech scripts is a self-explanatory concept. A speech script is the written form of a speech which was or is to be delivered at an event or in a special occasion, etc., which are historical and political settings in our case. On the other hand, a script is defined as the text of something oral, a TV show or a play (Collins English Dictionary, n.d.). Given this definition, one can infer that a speech script from the history is the written text of what was said in that specific speech which was delivered 20 at a historically important time by someone who has a historical importance. It is important to clarify this concept since such texts are the data collection materials of this thesis. Hence, it should be noted that only historical speech scripts, which are also of a political nature, are used for the purposes of this study because it is believed that they are well-structured and well-formed for analysis. Within this framework, a political speech can be defined as the one which is about governmental issues other than individual matters (Sárosi-Márdirosz, 2014). In addition, Hansen (2010) states that political texts are the result of political activities. Therefore, a political speech is a different type of text which needs to be addressed separately. It involves political matters and is constructed by a political discourse. Indeed, Krebs (2015) states that presidents, by way of delivering speeches, can shape the policies. Thus, it can be said that there is a tangible relationship between speeches by historically important people such as presidents and politics. Political language is a special use of language and carries utterances that implicitly or explicitly refer to facts or events of a historical nature (Sárosi-Márdirosz, 2014). In other words, political language has its own characteristics such as its specific terminology, style and context. Thus, it is different to the common language spoken by the people (Sárosi-Márdirosz, 2014). It further has something to do with the history since most of the historical events are accompanied by such speeches such as socially significant phenomena in the history, legal and territorial changes, political events in the world and wars. Indeed, Hansen (2010) asserted that the function of the political speeches is determined by history and culture. Furthermore, Schäffner (1997) states that political speeches have references to historical events (as cited in Hansen, 2010). Therefore, historical and political speeches might be considered to be similar. Political speeches are also considered to be an important means of communication between the politicians and the citizens (Sárosi-Márdirosz, 2014). Hence, one can say that such a communication should have a purpose as do all acts of communication. According to Sárosi-Márdirosz, the purpose of a political text might be persuasion, reasoning, deceit, or hustling. In relation to translation of such texts, each purpose will require a different strategy to be adopted for the process of translation, which is also suggested by Reiss in 1977 according to the text types (as cited in Munday, 2008). This 21 is accompanied by the abovementioned unique characteristics of political speeches, which make the process even more challenging. Moreover, there are various types of political speeches delivered by politicians themselves, journalists, analysts of policies and even the citizens (Sárosi-Márdirosz, 2014). As is demonstrated above, each speech will require a different strategy because an analysts' speech will have its differences to a speech delivered by a citizen. Furthermore, each individual has his/her own style and idiolect. Therefore, the translator of political texts takes into account such diversities. Last but not least, political speeches involve symbolism, implicitness and indirectness (Sárosi-Márdirosz, 2014). In other words, there are uses of language where the meaning is rendered indirectly and the translator has to decode such indirect meaning and render a translation which is easy to understand for the target receiver. The translator should abandon creativity and accept the traditional language for a proper translation of political texts (Sárosi-Márdirosz, 2014). However, the researcher believes that symbolism and metaphors might require creativity to some extent, which is further believed to add more challenge to the translation of political speeches. As it is the case for other types of texts, each country has its own tradition for political speeches, which leads us to the fact that equivalence is not always established during the process of translation of such texts, meaning that changes might occur in such translations due to the different traditions, cultures and norms of different nations. Indeed, Sárosi-Márdirosz (2014) states that each country has its own diplomatic representations. In addition, Schäffner (1997) states that political speeches are culture-bound, which is another problem with regard to the translation of political speeches (as cited in Hansen, 2010). Considering the stylistic differences between different speakers, purpose of the speech, nature and characteristics and terminology of politics, implicitness, politeness and different traditions of different cultures, it might be stated that there are various challenges standing right in front of the translator of political speeches (Doğan, 2017b). All the characteristics of political and historical speeches explained above put various problems before the translators and they make shifts, willingly or unwillingly, in order to tackle these problems. 22 Up till now, the characteristics of political speeches and challenges with regard to their translation have been addressed. However, the focal point of this thesis is the translation of scripts of these speeches which can be defined as the written texts of speeches that are to be delivered in front of an audience. The point is that these speech scripts have the same characteristics explained above. In addition, they are not immediate utterances but stable texts that await translation. Therefore, the translator of such texts should take into account one more thing, which is the fact that these texts will be delivered as oral utterances in the end. Hence, the translator should also consider this situation and embrace strategies that will yield a functional translation of speech scripts. On the other hand, even if they are not delivered as oral utterances, they still might be intended to provide information to citizens of other countries. Still, the translator needs to render a translation which demonstrates characteristics of political texts and also, this translations needs to conform with the norms of the target culture within the scope of spoken texts while paying attention to the fact that the purpose of the translation is to communicate the information contained within that speech. Thus, the translator should embrace his/her approach according to the purpose of the translation. Another point to be stressed with regard to the translation of speech scripts is that the translation of such texts should not make the audience feel the presence of the translator (Toshioka, 2014). The purpose is to provide a translation with the same function which the ST has on the source audience. Within this scope, Toshioka argues that the SoT might be the result of a translator to produce a functionally appropriate translation. Indeed, Popovič (1970) stated, with regard to SoT, that it is not the translators’ will to change a work but to reproduce it as faithfully as possible. This is the translator's will to ensure that the communicative function of the translation is achieved. 1.1.3 A Genre Analysis Approach The approach of genre analysis has attracted various researchers working in the field of TS for about three decades (Biel, 2017). As a dictionary definition, genre means “a kind” (Britannica, 2016). Thus, the concept of genre is attributed to the identification of “kinds” of texts within the scope of TS. In fact, the concept of genre has a close relationship with text types, which was mainly addressed by Reiss in 1977. However, 23 text types refer to texts which share similar forms and contents while genre is defined as “a class of communicative events, the members of which share some set of communicative purposes which are recognised by the expert members of the parent discourse community” (Swales, 1990, p. 58, as cited in Biel, 2017, p. 151). Hence, genre relates to identification of texts and looking for regularities and abstraction above a textual level together with a communicative purpose (Biel, 2017). The concept of “genre evokes the social context of use” (Biel, 2017, p. 152). Within this scope, genre analysis deals with both the structural elements and the discourse community and its expectations (Fairclough, 2003, p. 218, as cited in Biel, 2017, p. 152). Munday (2008) also states that “genre is conditioned by the sociocultural environment”, meaning that the social context has an impact on the genre, which makes it different from the text types (p. 90-91). In contrast to text types, genres tend to be dynamic; that is, some of the genres are more fixed such as a legislative text while some of them are more unconventional and creative such as TV advertisements (Biel, 2017). In addition, genres are related to and interact with each other (Biel, 2017). Therefore, genre hybridity is possible, in a similar fashion with the idea that ‘pure’ text types do not exist. Genre analysis in TS is a relatively new subject since it gained its importance in the 1990s, much later than gaining importance in linguistics (Biel, 2017). Genre analysis in TS is closely related to rhetorical analysis and formatting of the whole texts and to identify generic differences to come up with descriptive conclusions based on the patterns observed (Biel, 2017). The importance of these descriptive conclusions derives from the fact that the genre of a text might have an impact on the translation process. Indeed, Hatim and Mason (1990) argue that genre of a given ST might influence translators’ decision-making process. Hence, the generic patterns and formatting of texts have an impact on translators and their strategies. For example, Biel (2017) states that some genres might lead to the use of more explicitation. That is why; knowing the genre of a given ST is considered to be important for the translator, which makes genre analysis an important part of the TS. As stated above, genre is shaped by the purpose of the speaker and the expectations of the discourse community which is the addressee of the speech. Indeed, Chesterman (1997) relates genres to expectancy norms (as cited in Biel, 2017).Thus, the translation strategies need to be adopted according to the expectations and norms of the target 24 culture. At this point, translators also need to be aware of the fact that although same genres might be found in both languages involved in the translation process, these genres might be structured in different ways (Biel, 2017). In other words, the genre and the text type of a given ST might change in the target culture; for example, a historical political speech, which was an operative text at the time it was delivered, could be more of an informative text for an up-to-date journal. Therefore, genre shifts also need to be taken into consideration by the translators since they might also affect the strategies adopted by the translators. Within the scope of the impact of genre and genre shifts on translation process, Baker (1992) states that the translation needs to be adjusted to the TL textual convention in order to meet the norms of the target culture. Otherwise, the translation might hamper the comprehension by the target receiver (Biel, 2017). However, this situation is not always valid since the abovementioned fixed genres might not always leave room for the adjustment due to their fixed nature. Furthermore, Rogers (2015) states that knowledge of the ST genre by the translator ensures the comprehension of the ST while the knowledge of the TT genre ensures the production of the TT in line with the target expectations (as cited in Biel, 2017). Therefore, awareness of genres and their nature in terms of both the ST and the TT and knowledge of the expectations of the target community might contribute to the communicative function of a translation. Within this scope, as explained in the sections above, political speeches have their own characteristics such as use of implicitness or politeness and a dominant operative text function. The political speeches are characterised by call for action, call for following a principle or accomplishing a mission. As a complementary to the section above where speech scripts are addressed from the point of view of political speeches, this part gives information regarding the genre characteristics of such speeches. According to Danni (2020), move analysis, which was put by Swales (1981, 1990, as cited in Danni, 2020), is a useful method to provide an understanding of the genre and its nature. The move analysis “is concerned with the identification of rhetorical moves in a genre, which is regarded as a recognizable communicative event” with a communicative purpose (Swales, 1981, 1990, as cited in Danni, 2020, p. 3). As explained above, genre is about the communicative function and these rhetorical moves 25 are the ones which ensure the communicative function of the genre. They are utilised to identify the patterns found in a given genre. Danni (2020) found that there are some main moves in political speeches. Accordingly, a political speech “provides proposals and instructions or describes action plans with the aim to accomplish specific missions” and “describes a matter of fact, introduces background knowledge or states an epistemic belief” (Danni, 2020, p. 6). According to these two moves, one communicative purpose of a political speeches is to call people to act while another one is to provide information to the addressee, respectively. In a similar fashion with the first move, a political speech “presents strategies, policies, or regular practices with the aim to achieve a specific objective” (Danni, 2020, p. 6). Thus, a speaker calls people to act and provide them with the necessary information and evoke the will to act in people’s mind. To do so, the speaker of a political matter “describes the economic, political, legal, or material context, highlights existing expectations, or underlines difficulties and problems” in order to find solutions to the problems to show that they can be overcome and action be taken (Danni, 2020, p. 6). The speaker also strengthens the argument by stating that the same things happened before, implying that the specific thing s/he asks for can be achieved again. Thus, the speaker “reviews relevant historical events, experiences, past actions or individual stories” and “presents the effects or achievements of relevant actions” (Danni, 2020, p. 6). The speaker encourages the addressee and “makes commitments, expectations, or forward-looking statements in terms of actions to take or missions to accomplish in the future” (Danni, 2020, p. 6). Other than reaching the goal of calling people to act and encouraging them, the speaker of a political speech “expresses attitude or emotion of an individual or a community, such as solidarity, gratitude, appreciation, acknowledgment, good will, and empathy” in order to create an emotional tie with the addressee (Danni, 2020, p. 6). As seen from the findings of Danni (2020), the main move found in political speeches is calling people to take action and making them follow principles. Within this scope, the communicative function of this genre is to awake something in people’s mind to make them do the things wanted to be done by the speaker. As a secondary move, the speaker provides information and arguments to the people in order to guide them in the direction that s/he wants. Hence, another communicative function of this genre is the provision of information and knowledge to the addressee. Finally, the speaker uses empathy to make 26 people understand that they all are on the same side, creating an emotional link. As such, this genre is in close relationship with the operative text types. With regard to the translation of such a genre, House (1977) states that they need to be translated with the strategy of overt translation which is not to hide that the text at hand is a translation (as cited in Biel, 2017). The translation of political speeches is considered as overt translation because they are not relevant to the target receiver as the ST is relevant to the source receiver (Danni, 2020). So, such translations are known and accepted as a translated text, which has the impact on the social function of the text and expectations of the target receiver, as discussed above. Therefore, it can be argued that an informative function weighs more than the operative function in the translation of political speeches, which suggest that the original genre is shifted in the TT in terms of the communicative purpose of the text. In fact, Schäffner (2004) states that translation of political discourse is to make information available beyond national borders (as cited in Danni, 2020). It is different from the original genre because the same effect is not expected from the target receiver, which affects the translation process in that it requires adoption of different norms and strategies. Indeed, Biel (2017) states that the act of translation has contributed to the genre shifts throughout the years. When there is a genre shift, the grammatical shifts of translation becomes inevitable in the process of translation so that the translated text can comply with the communicative purpose it has. Similarly, Danni (2020) attributes the occurrences of shifts of translation to generic differences between the genre of the translated texts and the original genre. In this thesis, the researcher observers the genre shifts and text type shifts in the TTs to see if the linguistic shifts of translation are affected from such macro-level shifts. 1.2 SHIFTS 1.2.1 An Overview Shifts in translation were addressed in many studies by various researchers such as Jean Vinay and Jean Paul Darbelnet (1995), Eugene Nida (1964), Peter Newmark (1993), Roman Jakobson (1959), Popovič (1970), Miko (1970), Werner Koller (1979), van Leuven-Zwart (1991) and John Catford (1965) (as cited in Hijjo & Kadhim, 2017). 27 Although this concept was first termed as “transposition” by Vinay and Darbelnet (1995), the term “translation shifts” was coined by Catford in his work in 1965. Either way, the concept is the same, which is a change that occurs during the process of going from the ST to the TT. Hatim and Munday (2004) states, in a general sense, that translation shifts are minor linguistic changes between ST and TT. On the other hand, Baker and Saldanha (2009) state that shifts are translators’ attempt to address the systemic differences between the languages involved. Furthermore, Gideon Toury (1995) states that shifts of translation are deviations from the adequacy, which will be explained later on in this chapter. Based on the abovementioned attempts by the scholars to define what an SoT is, it can be stated that an SoT is essentially a change that occurs when a difference between the languages are observed during the process of translation yet each scholar adopted his/her own way to establish a framework to shed light on the issue. Vinay and Darbelnet (1995) proposed seven different methods of translation in their work which included “transposition”, which is basically shifting as mentioned above. Popovič (1970) states that “all that appears as new with respect to the original, or fails to appear where it might have been expected, may be interpreted as a shift.” (as cited in Baker & Saldanha, 2009, p. 271). According to this definition, SoT can be analysed under three dimensions: the relationship between the ST and TT, the relationship between the TT and its reception by the target audience, an explanatory point of view (Baker & Saldanha, 2009). The final item among these three dimensions is the core of this thesis as it tries to explain the shifts in the translation of historical speeches. Indeed, as put by Baker & Saldanha (2009), works on shifts ‘presupposes’ an explanatory point of view. There are also other approaches to SoT. For example, Miko (1970) addressed the expression shifts and style, and he suggested that the ultimate purpose of a translator is to protect the style and the expressive nature of the ST (as cited in Hijjo & Kadhim, 2017). Popovič (1970) states that shifts of translation are either optional or obligatory due to some language restraints, which was also addressed in the works of Toury (1995) and Vinay and Darbelnet (1995). Baker (1992) classified shifts as shifts of omission, shifts of addition, semantic shifts and grammatical shifts (as cited in Altwaijri, 2019). She also mentioned about semantic shifts where meaning changes (Baker, 1992). On the other hand, Catford (1965) proposed a different perspective and classified them under 28 two major categories as “shift of level” and “shift of category”. In addition, Djamila (2010) attempted to merge the works of Catford and Baker and provided a comprehensive diagram for shifts of translation (as cited in Altwaijri, 2019). Figure 1 Diagram of Shifts of Translation (Djamila, 2010, as cited in Altwaijri, 2019) According to the diagram, SoT is first divided into four, all of which actually from the theory of Baker. However, Catford’s theory is included under the Grammatical Shifts branch which refers to the fact that the theory of Catford is based on linguistics. Baker’s model includes additions and omissions as well as semantic shifts where the meaning of the words or phrases changes during the process of translation (Djamila, 2010, as cited in Altwaijri, 2019). Altwaijri (2019) states that this diagram by Djamila “provides a more comprehensive approach towards the changes that take place in the process of translating the ST into TT.” (p. 32). It is believed that the whole concept of SoT is much more holistic thanks to this diagram and it provides a better understanding of the whole concept. This comprehensive approach is necessary to develop a better understanding of the issue of SoT but it should be noted that the present thesis is solely focused on “Grammatical Shifts” which is the theory proposed by Catford in 1965. 29 Furthermore, Popovič (1970) suggested that the transfer between the two languages can only be possible via appropriate shifts. This remark is believed to demonstrate the importance of shifts in the process of translation because the transfer between the languages would be problematic or almost impossible if it were not for the shifts. Although there are various attempts by researchers to shed light on the issue, it is considered that the model put forth by Catford is systematic enough to be used for the purposes of this thesis. Therefore, his model is taken as the basis of this study. The next section details this theoretical model. 1.2.2 Catford’s Model John Catford (1965), in his work entitled “A Linguistic Theory of Translation” coined the term of “shifts of translation”. According to what he put forth in his work, “shifts are departures from the formal correspondence in the process of going from the SL to the TL” (Catford, 1965, p. 73). In order to develop an understanding with regard to this definition, one needs to take a look at the definition of “formal correspondence” and “textual equivalence”. According to Catford (1965), “a formal correspondent is any TL category (unit- class, structure, element of structure, etc.) which can be said to occupy, as nearly as possible, the ‘same’ place in the ‘economy’ of the TL as the given SL category occupies in the SL.” (p. 32). As put by Hatim and Munday (2004) in simplified terms, a formal correspondent is “a TL piece of language which plays the same role in the TL system as an SL piece of language plays in the SL system.” (p. 27). Hijjo & Kadhim (2017) state that the aim of the formal correspondence is to cover the form and the content of the ST in the TT as much as possible. Therefore, one can say that the concept of formal correspondence is related to the comparison and description of two different languages and their systems. So, Catford acknowledges a level of formal correspondence between two languages and when this correspondence is not ensured, shifts occur. A textual equivalent, on the other hand, is “any TL text or portion of text which is observed […] to be equivalent of a given SL text or portion of text” (Catford, 1965, p. 27). Hence, it can be said that textual equivalence is about the relations between a 30 specific ST-TT pair while formal correspondence is related to general and non-specific relationship between the elements of two languages in a broader sense (Hatim & Munday, 2004). Considering these two concepts, it can be stated that Catford’s model is based on the conviction that some translation has no formal correspondence between the two language systems involved (Hijjo & Kadhim, 2017). Within this framework, a translation shift can be defined, in a much broader sense, as an occurrence observed when going from ST to TT where an element of TT is found other than the formal correspondent of it in the ST (Hatim & Munday, 2004). To classify these occurrences, Catford (1965) provided two major categories: Shifts of level and shifts of category. 1.2.2.1 Level Shifts Catford (1965) defines level shifts as cases where "a SL item at one linguistic level has a TL translation equivalent at a different level" (p. 73). According to the theoretical framework put forth by Catford in 1965, shifts between the levels of graphology and phonology are not possible, nor between the levels of lexis and grammar and one of the levels of graphology and phonology. Hence, he posits that the only possible level shift is between the levels of grammar and lexis. Such shifts are said to occur in both directions; namely, from grammar to lexis or from lexis to grammar. Catford (1965) suggests that these kind of shifts occur highly frequently. In simpler terms, a level shift occurs when a grammatical structure in one language finds its correspondent as a word in the other language. Considering the limitations of this thesis, an example from the languages of English and Turkish would best suit. To illustrate, a level shift occurs when the expression of 'Bu makalede ... konusu ele alınmaktadır' is translated as 'The present article deals with ...'(back translated as Mevcut makale...) since the SL adjective 'Bu' has its TL equivalent as a combination of an article and an adjective (The present...). In order to provide a better understanding of this situation, one might seek content words and function words between ST and TT pairs to identify such shifts. While the term function words refers to words which a task to fulfil in a sentence and have little or 31 no meaning, the term content words refers to words which have a meaning, and nouns and verbs are examples of content words while the examples of function words include articles, pronouns and prepositions (Nunnan, 1993). Furthermore, Nunnan also states that content words are also called as lexical words and that function words are also called as grammatical words, which resembles Catford’s explanation of level shifts as between levels of grammar and lexis. 1.2.2.2 Category Shifts In the theory proposed by John Catford, there are also category shifts which are the vast part of his analysis of shifts of translation (Fat'hi & Akbari, 2012). Catford (1965) further classifies the category shifts under four titles: structure shifts, class shifts, unit shifts (or rank shifts), and intra-system shifts, each of which will be explained below. 1.2.2.2.1 Structural Shifts In Catford's (1965) view, structure shifts are the most frequently occurring type of shifts under the classification of category shifts. He states that structure shifts are mostly seen in grammatical structures: frequently in clause rank and group rank (Catford, 1965). In addition, a clause structure shift may occur when the modality of the sentence or the stance of the sentence producer towards the receiver changes (B. Özsöz, personal communication, December 3, 2020). Clause rank is thought to be the most obvious one. It is not difficult for a linguist to think that every language has its own sentence structures. This is also the case for the language pair of English and Turkish. While sentence order in English is SVO, it is SOV in Turkish. In fact, this difference in the structure of a sentence, or a clause in other words, is causing a structure shift during the process of translation. To give an example, 'I am going to work' is translated into Turkish as 'İşe gidiyorum' (back translation with a word-for-word approach to demonstrate the shift: 'To work am going I'). As is seen in this example, it might be said that it is almost impossible to avoid a structure shift at clause rank between the languages of English and Turkish. 32 Group rank, on the other hand, frequently occurs from English into French as is illustrated by Catford (1965). In his example, he suggests that the modified + head combination in English is shifted as (modified) + head + qualifier in French as in the example (with word-for-word translation into Turkish): 'A white house' (bir beyaz ev) = 'Une mansion blanche' (bir ev beyaz). As it can be seen from the example, a structural shift occurred due to the different grammatical structures of the languages involved. In order to go from English to French, the translator has no choice but to shift the structure of the unit in question. The following can be an example for the pair of English and Turkish: "The question referred" = "Atıfta bulunulan soru" (the referred question). 1.2.2.2.2 Class Shifts As is defined by Catford (1965) in his work, a class is a "group of members of a given unit that is defined by operation in the structure of the unit next above" (p. 78). Therefore, we can define a class shift as an occurrence when the translation equivalent of an SL element is a member of a different class in the TL. So, we can say that it is possible to translate an adjective by a noun or a verb (Fat'hi & Akbari, 2012). Catford's (1965) example for this type of shift is the English expression of 'A medical student' (tıp öğrencisi) which is translated into French as 'un étudiant en médicine' (tıpta öğrenci). While the word 'medical' is an adjective in the English expression, it becomes a noun in the French expression (médicine). In order to provide a better understanding of the concept of class shift, one can also take a look at the model proposed by Vinay and Darbelnet (1995), where this kind of shift is called as 'transposition'. As is explained by Munday (2008), transposition is shifting of one part of speech for another without making a change on the meaning. In the example provided by Vinay and Darbelnet (1995), a shift of class is observed when the English expression of 'as soon as she got up' is translated into French as 'dés son lever'. In this example, it is seen that the verb in the English expression became a noun in its French translation. 33 1.2.2.2.3 Unit (or Rank) Shifts Unit shift is the change of rank (Catford, 1965). The term rank here refers to "the hierarchical linguistic units of sentence, clause, group, word and morpheme." (Munday, 2008, p. 61). In Catford's own terms (1965), unit shifts are "departures from formal correspondence in which the translation equivalent of a unit at one rank in the SL is a unit at a different rank in the TL" (p. 79). To put it simply, a word might find its translation equivalent as a morpheme or a group, or vice versa (Fat'hi & Akbari, 2012). Therefore, it can be understood that unit shifts occur when a change on this hierarchy is observed. To illustrate, when the English sentence “he was approaching slowly” is translated into Turkish as “yavaş bir şekilde yaklaşıyordu” (back translated as: he was approaching in a slow manner), it can be stated that there is a unit shift because the equivalent of the word “slowly”, which is one word, in the TT is the expression “yavaş bir şekilde”, which consists of three words. In addition to this example which goes from a word in the ST to a word group in the TT, there is also a unit shift which goes from a word in the ST to a morpheme in the TT: the word “was” translated as a morpheme because of the differences between the two languages, so the equivalent of this word became the morpheme “-du”, which makes up the unit shift in question. 1.2.2.2.4 Intra-system Shifts This type of shift is about the internal dynamics of a language as it can be understood from the expression of “intra-system”. Hijjo & Kadhim (2017) states that intra-system shifts are the ones that take place within a language system. Such shifts occur when SL and TL have approximately the same systems but the translation involves a selection which does not include the formal correspondent of the term in the ST (Catford, 1965). In his work, Catford (1965) provides examples of numbers and expressions of plurality between English and French. To give a similar example, English and Turkish have more or less similar plurality rules. In both languages, the morphologically marked word is the plural one when compared to the singular one (e.g. bird(s) in English and kuş(lar) in Turkish). In our 34 case, the word 'information' might be a case where such a shift might be observed because this word does not have a marked plural form in English but it has a marked plural form in Turkish, which is 'bilgiler', though it is also used as a singular noun where necessary. Once again, French and English article systems were also provided as an example in his work (Catford, 1965). 1.2.3 Optional and Obligatory Shifts Some of the researchers who have worked on SoT also made effort to classify them as ‘optional’ and ‘obligatory’ shifts. Each researcher had his/her own way of designation for this concept. For instance, Vinay and Darbelnet (1995) called them as ‘servitude’ and ‘option’ while Toury (1995) called them ‘obligatory’ and ‘non-obligatory shifts’. Furthermore, Popovič (1976) coined the terms of ‘constitutive’ and ‘individual’ shifts while van Leuven-Zwart (1984) used the expressions of ‘formal’ and ‘substantial’ shifts (as cited in Koster, 2000). Although similar terms can be seen in the relevant literature, the terms ‘obligatory’ and ‘optional’, for the sake of clarity, are selected for the purposes of this study. As a general framework, obligatory shifts are all the mandatory shifts which are dictated by the structural differences between the two languages involved while the optional shifts are the ones which are dictated by translators’ personal or stylistic choices (Al- Zoubi & Al-Hassnawi, 2001). Going into more detail, van Leuven-Zwart (1984) states that obligatory shifts are bound by the language and she further asserts that optional shifts are the preferences of translators (as cited in Koster, 2000). Popovič (1976), on the other hand, put forth that constitutive shifts are the result of differences between the languages and individual shifts are related to the idiolect of the translator and his/her “expressive propensities” (as cited in Koster, 2000). According to what Vinay and Darbelnet (1995) pointed out, servitude means that an obligatory ‘modulation’ or ‘transposition’ took place in the translation due to the language differences while an option is a non-obligatory change caused by the style and choices of the translator. Hence, the main distinction one should make between these two concepts is that one is solidly based on the “asymmetrical relationship”, as put by Koster (2000), and the other is out of the preferences of the translators. 35 The parts below provide more detail with regard to the optional and obligatory shifts with examples and references to the works by the concerned researchers, which may bring better understanding to the subject. 1.2.3.1 Obligatory Shifts It is now known by both translators and TS scholars that languages in the world does not correspond to one another, meaning that one language is somehow different from another one even if they come from the same family. Indeed, Lyons (1981) states that the structural diversity of the languages is limitless. Within this diversity, as put by Catford in 1965, a formal correspondence might not always be ensured between two languages involved in a translation process, so a shift might occur. This shift is called an obligatory shift when it is caused by the differences of the languages and when no other option is available to provide an equivalent in the TT. Hence, obligatory shifts are the result of the systemic or linguistic differences between the languages, which causes the translator to shift from the SL, one way or the other. Toshioka (2014) states that even the translation of one sentence necessitates a change on its structure due to the linguistic differences between the two languages involved. This statement demonstrates that there might be strong divergences between the languages which lead translators to shift. This situation can be supported with Nida’s (1964) viewpoint asserting that “there is no complete correspondence between languages” (as cited in Al-Timen, 2016, p. 74). Furthermore, Al-Timen (2016) states that “some shifts are a must” (p. 75). Hence, one can understand that there are some differences between the languages, which somehow lead to shifts in the translations. According to Nida (1964) and Catford (1965), there are three dimensions which might be the reason of an obligatory shift: structural-syntactic, semantic, and cultural (as cited in Al-Timen, 2016). If, in the comparison of two languages, there is a gap in these areas, the translator has no choice but to shift at some point due to these gaps. For example, there are two words for “gift” in Arabic. While one means “a gift which is expected to have one in return”, the other “gift” given without such intentions (Al-Timen, 2016, p. 81). This makes the translators and/or the translation scholars think for a replacement or 36 an equivalent for these two different words of “gift” and, willingly or unwillingly, the strategies adopted by the translators yield obligatory shifts in the case where the equivalent of an item is absent in the TL. As is seen from the above examples and definitions, there are divergences between the languages which are proved and accepted by the scholars and translators have no choice but to make a shift when they encounter an item which is not found in the TL due to these divergences, differences or gaps. 1.2.3.2 Optional Shifts An optional shift, on the contrary to an obligatory shift, can occur without the existence of a gap between the languages involved, such as a cultural or a linguistic gap as is demonstrated above (Al-Timen, 2016). It can also be stated that an optional shift is made by the choice of the translator. As put by Al-Timen (2016), optional shifts grant translators ‘the privilege’ of reflecting their own propensities and making. Furthermore, Medadian (2015) defines optional shifts as the ones which the translators don't have to make. There can be many reasons for such choices and preferences as put forth by the abovementioned researchers: It can be stylistic, idiolect-based, or a preference which the translator thinks will give a better equivalent for the term. This can also be an ideological preference (Baker & Saldanha, 2009). Furthermore, Toshioka (2014) states that the shifts may be the result of a translator’s preference. It seems that the driving-force behind the optional shifts is like a vast sea of reasons. However, they are still the choices of a translator, one way or the other. If the shifts derive from the preferences of a translator, which means that there are some choices for the TL equivalent of an ST item and the translator chooses one of them, then they can be called as optional shifts since this situation obviously involves an option. The concept of optional shifts has attracted the TS scholars the most since they indicate specific choices of translators in a specific translation situation (Hatim & Munday, 2004). It is believed that the reason behind this is that the obligatory shifts are already limited with the differences between the languages. In other words, there are limited types of differences between two given languages. However, there might be endless 37 reasons for an optional shift even if it is