Hacettepe University Graduate School of Social Sciences 

Department of Translation and Interpreting 

 

 

 

 

REMAKING SEX-RELATED HUMOR: A CASE STUDY ON THE 

TURKISH REMAKE DADI OF THE AMERICAN SITCOM THE 

NANNY 

 

 

 

 

Merve YAYGIN 

 

 

 

 

Master’s Thesis 

 

 

 

 

 

Ankara, 2022 

 

 

 

 

 

 



 

 

 

 

 

  



 

 

 

 

 

 

REMAKING SEX-RELATED HUMOR: A CASE STUDY ON THE 

TURKISH REMAKE DADI OF THE AMERICAN SITCOM THE 

NANNY 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Merve YAYGIN 

 

 

 

 

Hacettepe University Graduate School of Social Sciences 

Department of Translation and Interpreting 

 

 

 

 

Master’s Thesis 

 

 

 

 

 

Ankara, 2022 

 

 

 

 

 



 

 

 

 

KABUL VE ONAY 

Merve YAYGIN tarafından hazırlanan “Remaking Sex-Related Humor: A Case 

Study on the Turkish Remake Dadı of the American Sitcom The Nanny” başlıklı 

bu çalışma, 25.05.2022 tarihinde yapılan savunma sınavı sonucunda başarılı 

bulunarak jürimiz tarafından Yüksek Lisans Tezi olarak kabul edilmiştir. 

 

 
 
 

Doç. Dr. Ayşe Şirin OKYAYUZ (Başkan) 
 
 
 

Dr. Elif ERSÖZLÜ (Danışman) 
 
 
 

Dr. Korkut Uluç İŞİSAĞ (Üye) 
 
 

 

 

 

 

 

Yukarıdaki imzaların adı geçen öğretim üyelerine ait olduğunu onaylarım. 

 

 

Prof. Dr. Uğur ÖMÜRGÖNÜLŞEN 

Enstitü Müdürü 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 



 

 

 

 

YAYIMLAMA VE FİKRİ MÜLKİYET HAKLARI BEYANI 

Enstitü tarafından onaylanan lisansüstü tezimin tamamını veya herhangi bir kısmını, basılı (kağıt) 

ve elektronik formatta arşivleme ve aşağıda verilen koşullarla kullanıma açma iznini Hacettepe 

Üniversitesine verdiğimi bildiririm. Bu izinle Üniversiteye verilen kullanım hakları dışındaki tüm 

fikri mülkiyet haklarım bende kalacak, tezimin tamamının ya da bir bölümünün gelecekteki 

çalışmalarda (makale, kitap, lisans ve patent vb.) kullanım hakları bana ait olacaktır. 

Tezin kendi orijinal çalışmam olduğunu, başkalarının haklarını ihlal etmediğimi ve tezimin tek 

yetkili sahibi olduğumu beyan ve taahhüt ederim. Tezimde yer alan telif hakkı bulunan ve 

sahiplerinden yazılı izin alınarak kullanılması zorunlu metinleri yazılı izin alınarak kullandığımı ve 

istenildiğinde suretlerini Üniversiteye teslim etmeyi taahhüt ederim. 

Yükseköğretim Kurulu tarafından yayınlanan “Lisansüstü Tezlerin Elektronik Ortamda 

Toplanması, Düzenlenmesi ve Erişime Açılmasına İlişkin Yönerge” kapsamında tezim 

aşağıda belirtilen koşullar haricince YÖK Ulusal Tez Merkezi / H.Ü. Kütüphaneleri Açık Erişim 

Sisteminde erişime açılır. 

o Enstitü / Fakülte yönetim kurulu kararı ile tezimin erişime açılması mezuniyet 

tarihimden itibaren 2 yıl ertelenmiştir. (1) 

o Enstitü / Fakülte yönetim kurulunun gerekçeli kararı ile tezimin erişime açılması 

mezuniyet tarihimden itibaren  ….. ay ertelenmiştir. (2) 

o Tezimle ilgili gizlilik kararı verilmiştir. (3) 

      ……/………/……  

                                                                                                                         

 

                                                                                                             Merve YAYGIN 

 

1“Lisansüstü Tezlerin Elektronik Ortamda Toplanması, Düzenlenmesi ve Erişime Açılmasına İlişkin Yönerge”  

(1) Madde 6. 1. Lisansüstü tezle ilgili patent başvurusu yapılması veya patent alma sürecinin devam etmesi 

durumunda, tez danışmanının önerisi ve enstitü anabilim dalının uygun görüşü üzerine enstitü veya fakülte 

yönetim kurulu iki yıl süre ile tezin erişime açılmasının ertelenmesine karar verebilir.   

 

(2) Madde 6. 2. Yeni teknik, materyal ve metotların kullanıldığı, henüz makaleye dönüşmemiş veya patent gibi 

yöntemlerle korunmamış ve internetten paylaşılması durumunda 3. şahıslara veya kurumlara haksız kazanç 

imkanı oluşturabilecek bilgi ve bulguları içeren tezler hakkında tez danışmanının önerisi ve enstitü anabilim 

dalının uygun görüşü üzerine enstitü veya fakülte yönetim kurulunun gerekçeli kararı ile altı ayı aşmamak 

üzere tezin erişime açılması engellenebilir. 

 

 

(3) Madde 7. 1. Ulusal çıkarları veya güvenliği ilgilendiren, emniyet, istihbarat, savunma ve güvenlik, sağlık vb. 

konulara ilişkin lisansüstü tezlerle ilgili gizlilik kararı, tezin yapıldığı kurum tarafından verilir *. Kurum ve 

kuruluşlarla yapılan işbirliği protokolü çerçevesinde hazırlanan lisansüstü tezlere ilişkin gizlilik kararı ise, ilgili 

kurum ve kuruluşun önerisi ile enstitü veya fakültenin uygun görüşü üzerine üniversite yönetim kurulu 

tarafından verilir. Gizlilik kararı verilen tezler Yükseköğretim Kuruluna bildirilir.  

Madde 7.2. Gizlilik kararı verilen tezler gizlilik süresince enstitü veya fakülte tarafından gizlilik kuralları 

çerçevesinde muhafaza edilir, gizlilik kararının kaldırılması halinde Tez Otomasyon Sistemine yüklenir.  

 

* Tez danışmanının önerisi ve enstitü anabilim dalının uygun görüşü üzerine enstitü veya fakülte 

yönetim kurulu tarafından karar verilir. 



 

 

 

 

 

ETİK BEYAN 

Bu çalışmadaki bütün bilgi ve belgeleri akademik kurallar çerçevesinde elde 

ettiğimi, görsel, işitsel ve yazılı tüm bilgi ve sonuçları bilimsel ahlak kurallarına 

uygun olarak sunduğumu, kullandığım verilerde herhangi bir tahrifat 

yapmadığımı, yararlandığım kaynaklara bilimsel normlara uygun olarak atıfta 

bulunduğumu, tezimin kaynak gösterilen durumlar dışında özgün olduğunu, Dr. 

Öğr. Üyesi Elif ERSÖZLÜ danışmanlığında tarafımdan üretildiğini ve Hacettepe 

Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Tez Yazım Yönergesine göre yazıldığını 

beyan ederim. 

 

Merve YAYGIN 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 



iv 

 

 

 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 

 

I must admit that if I am here, writing this part of my thesis today, it is greatly 

thanks to many valuable people in my life. 

First and foremost, I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my thesis 

advisor, Asst. Prof. Elif ERSÖZLÜ, for her valuable contribution, stimulating 

guidance, constructive suggestions and continuous encouragement during the 

planning, development and completion of this thesis. She has been and will be a 

role model for me with her enthusiasm for life and love for profession. 

I am also deeply grateful to Assoc. Prof. Ayşe Şirin OKYAYUZ for her contribution 

to my thesis with her vast experience, for her supportive comments and providing 

me with articles. I would like to pay my special regards to Asst. Prof. Dilek 

ALTINKAYA NERGİS for her extensive personal and professional guidance, and 

especially for being an irreplaceable source of inspiration in my life. 

My family deserves my warm and heartfelt thanks for the endless love, 

tremendous support and hope they had given to me. I am especially thankful to 

my parents Murat and Özlem for their effort and love in bringing me up to be a 

better individual, my brother Mehmet Ali for his comforting and supportive 

personality, my grandparents Hatice and Ahmet for being my lifelong teachers 

and my aunt Şirin for always being there for me. 

I also owe my deepest thanks to a very special person, my better half, for 

constantly listening to me rant and talk things out, for cracking jokes when things 

became too serious. I could not have undertaken this journey without him 

embracing my dreams by making them ours and holding my hand tighter all the 

time. 

Lastly, I would like to express my appreciation to my friends Hande Aysu, Fatma, 

and especially to Nur GÜNEŞ UÇAR with an excellent personality, who has been 

there for me whenever I needed and supported me not only in personal but also 

in educational and academic life. Thank you all for the strength you gave me. I 

love you all!  



v 

 

 

 

ABSTRACT 

 

YAYGIN, Merve. REMAKING SEX-RELATED HUMOR: A CASE STUDY ON THE 

TURKISH REMAKE “DADI” OF THE AMERICAN SITCOM “THE NANNY”, 

Master’s Thesis, Ankara, 2022. 

 

 

Technological developments and communication through media have brought a 

new dimension to translation studies and emerged Audio-Visual Translation. 

Expanding usage of media in our daily lives has caused AVT to gain even more 

importance and led attention to be drawn to AVT. Although research on this field 

has increased recently, remake as an unconventional form of AVT, has been 

incorporated into translation studies in the last decade and needs to be 

problematized and studied. This thesis aims to investigate the transfer of sex-

related humor (SRH) in remakes. Delabastita’s strategies are adapted for the 

translation of sex-related humor in order to reveal the overall orientation in 

transferring SRH. This thesis also illustrates an in-depth analysis of the 

translation methods commonly used to successfully deal with difficulties 

encountered in humor translation and to convey the humorous effects to the 

Turkish audience. The American sitcom series The Nanny’s Turkish remake 

Dadı, pioneering the sitcom remakes in Turkish television history and being one 

of the longest-running sitcom remakes between 2000 and 2010 has been chosen 

as the subject of the thesis. Results clearly reveals that the SRH elements were 

mostly conveyed and transferred in the remake. However, the methods used 

during the transfer of SRH were mainly target-oriented. It was also concluded that 

SRH was recreated taking into account socio-cultural and institutional norms. In 

addition, there is a tendency to convey SRH in an implicit way. Removing and 

omitting SRH mostly occurred in examples where children took part in the SRH. 

On the contrary, explicitation took place mainly for compensation purposes.  

 

Keywords: Audiovisual translation, humor translation, remake, sitcom, The 

Nanny, Dadı 

 



vi 

 

 

 

ÖZET 

 

YAYGIN, Merve. CİNSEL İÇERİKLİ MİZAHIN YENİDEN ÇEVRİMİ: AMERİKAN DURUM 

KOMEDİSİ “THE NANNY” VE TÜRKÇE YENİDEN ÇEVRİMİ OLAN “DADI” DİZİSİ 

ÜZERİNE BİR VAKA ÇALIŞMASI, Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Ankara, 2022. 

 

Teknolojik çalışmalar ve medya aracılığıyla gerçekleşen iletişim çeviri 

çalışmalarına yeni bir boyut kazandırmış ve görsel-işitsel çeviriyi ortaya 

çıkarmıştır. Günlük hayatımızda medya kullanımının yaygınlaşması GİÇ’in daha 

da önem kazanmasına neden olmuş ve dikkatleri üzerine çekmiştir. Bu alandaki 

araştırmalar son zamanlarda artmasına rağmen, GİÇ altında çok alışık 

olmadığımız bir biçim olarak yeniden çevrimler, çeviri çalışmalarına son yıllarda 

dâhil edilmiştir. Dolayısıyla da sorunsallaştırılması ve incelenmesi gereken bir 

alan niteliğindedir. Bu tez yeniden çevrimlerde cinsel içerikli mizahın aktarımını 

araştırmayı amaçlamaktadır. Delabastita’nın stratejileri cinsel içerikli mizahın 

(CİM) aktarımındaki genel yönelimi ortaya çıkarmak CİM çevirisine yönelik olarak 

uyarlanmıştır. Bu tez aynı zamanda mizah çevirisinde karşılaşılan güçlükleri 

başarılı bir şekilde ele almak ve mizahi etkileri Türk okuyucuya iletmek için yaygın 

olarak kullanılan çeviri yöntemlerinin derinlemesine bir analizini de 

göstermektedir. Amerikan durum komedisi dizisi olan The Nanny ve Türk 

televizyon tarihinin durum komedisi türündeki yeniden çevrimlerine öncülük eden 

ve 2000-2010 yılları arasında en uzun soluklu durum komedisi yeniden 

çevrimlerinden biri olan Dadı dizisi bu tezin konusu olarak seçilmiştir. Sonuçlar, 

CİM unsurlarının yeniden çevrime çoğunlukla iletildiğini ve aktarıldığını açıkça 

ortaya koymaktadır. Ancak aktarımda kullanılan yöntemler ağırlıklı olarak hedef 

odaklı bir yaklaşım benimsemiştir. CİM’in aynı zamanda sosyo-kültürel ve 

kurumsal normlar dikkate alınarak yeniden oluşturulduğu sonucuna varılmıştır. 

Bununla birlikte cinsel içerikli mizah örtük bir şekilde iletilme eğilimindedir ve 

çoğunlukla çocukların cinsel içerikli mizahta yer aldığı örnekler çıkarılmıştır. Bu 

durumun aksine, açıklama genelde telafi amacıyla gerçekleştirilmiştir. 

 

Anahtar Kelimeler: Görsel-işitsel çeviri, mizah çevirisi, yeniden çevrim, durum 

komedisi, The Nanny, Dadı 



vii 

 

 

 

 

TABLE OF CONTENTS 

 

KABUL VE ONAY………………………………………………………………….…..i 

YAYIMLAMA VE FİKRİ MÜLKİYET HAKLARI BEYANI………..……….….……ii 

ETİK BEYAN……………………………………………....………...…………....…..iii 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS………………………………………………………...….iv 

ABSTRACT………………………………………………………………………...…..v 

ÖZET……………………………………………………………………………………vi 

TABLE OF CONTENTS…………………………………………………………......vii 

ABBREVIATIONS …………………………………………………….……...............x 

LIST OF TABLES …………………………………………………………………….xi 

LIST OF FIGURES……………………………………………………………..…….xii 

 

INTRODUCTION.....................................................…..................................……1 

CHAPTER 1: AUDIOVISUAL TRANSLATION...................................................5 

1.1. RISE OF AUDIOVISUAL TRANSLATION...…...…........................5 

1.1.1. Name and Nature of Audiovisual Translation...…….…….....6 

1.1.2. Common Types of Audiovisual Translation...……………….9 

1.1.2.1. Subtitling...………………..................................……10 

1.1.2.2. Dubbing...………………...........................................11 

1.2. REMAKES....................................................................................13 

1.2.1. Taxonomies of Remakes................................................…16 

1.2.2. Remakes within Translation Studies...……….................…21 

1.2.3. A Glimpse History of Remakes in Turkey...………....…..…24 

1.2.4. Radio and Television Supreme Council in Turkey..............27 

CHAPTER 2: HUMOR STUDIES.…...................……………….…………………29 

2.1. THE CONCEPT OF HUMOR.………..................................…...…29 

2.2. HUMOR THEORIES.…………….................…….……….…......…30 

2.2.1. Theory of Incongruity...............................................………30 

2.2.2. Theory of Superiority..........…….........................................31 



viii 

 

 

 

2.2.3. Theory of Release..........…..........................................…...32 

2.2.4. Linguistic Theories of Humor..................................……….33 

2.2.4.1. Semantic Script-based Theory of Humor...…………33 

2.2.4.2. General Theory of Verbal Humor..........….…………34 

2.2.5. Sex-Related Humor as Taboo..................................……...35 

2.3. HUMOR AND TRANSLATION.…….............................……….…36 

2.3.1. Difficulties Encountered in Humor Translation..........…......38 

2.3.2. Strategies and Methods for Humor Translation......……….40 

CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY…………………............…………….…………..44 

CHAPTER 4: CASE STUDY…………………............…………….…......……….50 

4.1. ABOUT THE NANNY.…………….................……........................50 

4.1.1. Brief Info About The Nanny’s Adaptations and Its Turkish 

Remake Dadı....………………………………………….……51 

4.1.2. Comparison of Plots and Settings....………………………..53 

4.1.3. Comparison of Main Characters....…………………….....…54 

4.2. ANALYSIS OF THE NANNY AND DADI WITHIN STRATEGIES 

FOR SEX-RELATED HUMOR TRANSLATION....…..............…..56 

4.2.1. Sex-Related Humor into Sex-Related Humor....……..........56 

4.2.2. Sex-Related Humor into Other Sex-Related Humor...........64 

4.2.3. Sex-Related Humor into Non Sex-Related Humor....……...89 

4.2.4. Non Sex-Related Humor into Sex-Related Humor....……..93 

4.2.5. Zero Translation....…....................................................…..97 

4.2.6. Non-Translation of SRH....…........................................…104 

4.2.7. Zero SRH into SRH...................................................……104 

CHAPTER 5: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION..................................................106 

5.1. RESULTS……………………………………………………....……106 

5.1.1. Overall Data on SRH Strategies, Number of SRH Elements, 

and Translation Methods……………………………………106 

5.1.2. Data on SRH Translation Methods According to SRH 

Strategies………………………………………………….....108 

5.1.2.1. Sex-Related Humor into Sex-Related Humor…….108 



ix 

 

 

 

5.1.2.2. Sex-Related Humor into Other Sex-Related 

Humor……………………………………………………109 

5.1.2.3. Sex-Related Humor into Non Sex-Related 

Humor……………………………………………………109 

5.1.2.4. Non Sex-Related Humor into Sex-Related 

Humor........................................................................110 

5.1.2.5. Zero Translation……………………………………..111 

5.2. DISCUSSION..............................…....................……………......111 

CONCLUSION....…..………..…………………………………..…......................117 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.......………………………………………………………………121 

 

APPENDIX A: ETHICS BOARD WAIVER FORM….….………………………..130 

APPENDIX B: ORIGINALITY REPORT…………………………………......…..132 

  



x 

 

 

 

ABBREVIATIONS 

 

AVT: Audiovisual Translation 

ECR: Extra-linguistic Culture Bound References 

GTVH: General Theory of Verbal Humor 

RTÜK: Radio and Television Supreme Council 

SL: Source language 

SRH: Sex-related Humor 

SSTH: Semantic Script-based Theory of Humor 

ST: Source Text 

TL: Target Language 

TT: Target Text 

 

 

 

  



xi 

 

 

 

LIST OF TABLES 

 

Table 1. AVT modes derived from Bartolome & Cabrera’s (2005, p.101) 

study……………..……………………………………………………………………...9 

Table 2. Comparison of Subtitling and Dubbing According to Diaz Cintas…..…12 

Table 3. O’Thomas’ Adaptation Classification (as cited in Okyayuz, 2017, 

p.113)………………………………………………………………………………….16 

Table 4. Henrik Gottlieb’s (2005, p. 7) classification of intrasemiotic translation 

types……………………………………………………………………………..........23 

Table 5. Okyayuz’s (2016, p.228) examples of remade American sitcom series in 

Turkey………………………………………………………………………………....27 

Table 6. The Three Families of Humor Theories according to Attardo (1991, 

p.17)...................................................................................................................34 

Table 7. Adaptation of Delabastita’s (1996, p.131) strategies for pun translation 

into Sex-related humor translation………………...………………………………..48 

Table 8. List of methods for transferring SRH……………………………...……...47 

Table 9. Awards earned by the American sitcom series The Nanny….…..……..53 

Table 10. Basic information about The Nanny and Dadı………………………….53 

Table 11. Episode Analysis of The Nanny and Dadı…………………….………...54 

 

 

 

 

 

  



xii 

 

 

 

LIST OF FIGURES 

 

Figure 1. Pederson’s (2005, p. 1) Strategies for Transferring ECR……………...43 

Figure 2. The number of The Nanny’s episodes per season……………...……...52 

Figure 3. Proportional Distribution of SRH Strategies……………………...……107 

Figure 4. The Number of Sex-Related Humorous Elements per Strategy.……108 

Figure 5. The Ratio of the Translation Methods Used In General…………..….108 

Figure 6. Translation Methods Used in “SRH into SRH” ……………........…….109 

Figure 7. Translation Methods Used in “SRH into Other SRH” ……………......110 

Figure 8. Translation Methods Used in “SRH into Non-SRH” ……………...…..110 

Figure 9. Translation Methods Used in “Non-SRH into SRH” ……………...…..111 

Figure 10. Translation Methods Used in “Zero Translation” ……………...…….112 

 

 

 

 



1 

 

 

 

INTRODUCTION 

 

1. GENERAL REMARKS 

Technological advances are increasing rapidly especially in this Information Age, 

namely the Digital Age and in this day and age. Media have probably become 

what we mostly use and what we are mostly exposed to in our daily lives. That 

results in attention to be drawn towards audiovisual translation within the field. All 

these developments have increased the need for translators in this field and have 

caused AVT to gain importance and to be studied within translation studies. On 

the other hand, remake as an unconventional form of AVT, has been incorporated 

into translation studies in the last decade and studies on remakes in the field are 

quite limited to those of Erguvan (2020), Okyayuz (2016, 2017) and Duman 

(2022) in Turkey. This situation requires remakes to be problematized and 

studied in terms of content, cultural and linguistic aspects by taking into account 

them being “ultimate free translation”(Nornes, 2007, p.8). 

In the field of translation studies, there was no study found where humor 

translation in remakes is analyzed in Turkey. That may be derive from the 

complex nature of humor. It is fact that humor is what we all – regardless of our 

language, culture, gender, race or religion – encounter in all areas of life. 

Therefore, it can be described as an universal human activity. Nevertheless, 

sense of humor changes within different cultures and among all the people 

because it is closely linked to sociologic (superiority theory), psychologic 

(incongruity theory) and cognitive (release theory) aspects. In view of this fact, 

Raphaelson-West (1989) divides humor into three categories: universal, linguistic 

and cultural. Universal humor can be defined as the easiest one to translate and 

transfer and that is where an equivalent translation can occur. On the other hand, 

cultural and linguistic differences may cause difficulties in the transfer of humor 

and the use of appropriate translation methods can overcome these problems. 

 



2 

 

 

 

2. PURPOSE AND SCOPE OF THE THESIS 

This thesis aims to investigate the problem of remaking sex-related humor. It pays 

particular importance on the overall orientation of transferring SRH and seeks an 

answer to when SRH is conveyed or omitted in the remaking process. This study 

also demonstrates a variety of overcoming methods for the problems that may 

arise in humor translation in order to convey the humorous effects to the Turkish 

audience. As for the analysis of overall orientation of SRH in remakes, 

Delabastita’s pun strategies are adapted. Methods used to overcome problems 

in transferring humor that may derive from the language and culture-bound 

features will be analyzed by creating a mixed list of methods put forth by many 

different scholars such as Vinay and Darbelnet, Pedersen, Cintas and Remael, 

Zabalbeascoa, Leppihalme, Mateo and etc. 

3. RESEARCH QUESTIONS 

As it has been stated, this thesis mainly aims to analyze humor transfer in 

remakes and in accordance with this aim, the American sitcom series The 

Nanny’s Turkish remake Dadı, pioneering the sitcom remakes in Turkish 

television history and being one of the longest-running sitcom remakes between 

2000 and 2010 has been chosen as the subject of the thesis. Research questions 

of the study to be answered, particularly by considering the subjects of the thesis, 

are as follows: 

 

1. What factors restrict conveying humor in remakes?  

2. Is the overall orientation in the remaking process to convey or to omit the 

sex-related humor? What could be the driving force behind conveying or 

omitting SRH? 

3. Do translation methods used form a pattern in the transference of SRH in 

remakes? If yes, how can this pattern be explained reasonably? 

 



3 

 

 

 

 

4. LIMITATIONS 

Hinging upon the analysis of humorous elements in the TV series Dadı – Turkish 

remake of the American sitcom The Nanny, this study is subject to several 

limitations. Primarily, only the first season consisting of 22 episodes out of six 

seasons of The Nanny (146 episodes in total, each lasting approximately 25 

minutes) and its correspondence in the Turkish remake (61 episodes in total, 

each lasting 50 minutes on the ground of combining two episodes of The Nanny 

mixedly) are explored. Four out of the 22 episodes are omitted completely and 

therefore left out of the study. Although the Turkish remake of the series preceded 

on Show TV in 2001, the records of Kanaltürk through Youtube are explored since 

relevant episodes broadcasted on Show TV are not to be found. On the other 

hand, this study considers various cultural, linguistic, visual etc. sex-related 

humorous elements. In this context, this study is not narrowed down to strategies 

proposed by a single scholar or theoreticians and the strategies of many scholars 

and theoreticians are applied. Considering that the same or similar strategies are 

classified under different names by some researchers, a "mixed" strategy list 

suitable for the object of study has been created in line with the purposes of this 

thesis. 

5. OUTLINE OF THE THESIS 

AVT and remakes as an unconventional form within the field were described in 

Chapter 1. Taking into account that the thesis focuses specifically on sex-related 

humorous elements, approaches toward the phenomenon of humor, humor 

translation and sex within the umbrella term of taboo were presented and 

discussed in Chapter 2. Methodology of the thesis was explained in detail in 

Chapter 3 that also included the adaptation of Delabastita’s (1996) strategies for 

SRH.  American sitcom series The Nanny and its Turkish remake Dadı were 

analyzed and compared in terms of SRH elements. In the following Chapter 5, 

charts about the findings were presented and discussed. In this conclusion part, 

the research questions presented in the Introduction will be answered and 

suggestions will be put forth for the further studies in the field. At the end of the 



4 

 

 

 

thesis, results predicted to be reached are that the overall translation strategy is 

to convey the SRH situated in the original into the remake; the methods are used 

interchangeably and sometimes even in a company considering the absence of 

technical, spatial, or visual constraints because it is not always possible to 

categorize translation examples in such rigid terms; and all the strategies and 

methods used aim to bring the source text closer to the target text due to the 

nature of remakes. 

 

  



5 

 

 

 

 

CHAPTER 1: AUDIOVISUAL TRANSLATION 
 
 

1.1. RISE OF AUDIOVISUAL TRANSLATION 

The age we are living in is called the Information Age, namely the Digital Age and 

in this day and age, there have been significant improvements in technology. 

Media is not only frequently used but we are exposed to it constantly in our daily 

lives. We use different types of media in our homes to the places that we go for 

entertainment. We are all surrounded and influenced by media; checking social 

media on our phones, watching news broadcasts, series, movies, 

advertisements, etc. daily. The use of media has increased globally, especially 

with the improvements in technology and the emergence of the internet. The 

developments in technology and media have led to further communication 

between societies, languages, and cultures; in a sense international and 

intercultural communication is currently easier and faster. The technological 

developments and the expanding use of media in communication have brought 

a new dimension to translation studies and new fields have emerged as Natalia 

Matkivska (2014) suggests: 

We live in the society influenced greatly by the Media. With the appearance of 
new technologies there appeared also new forms of international and intercultural 
communication which led to new forms of translation. Cinematography, as a part 
of the Media, has become one of the most widely-spread and influential forms of 
art. The translation of cinematographical products is called audiovisual translation 
though one can find many synonymous names as film translation, TV translation, 
screen translation and many others. (p.38) 
 
 

Drawing attention to the lack of literature in the field of audiovisual translation, 

Jorge Díaz Cintas (2004) points out that it has been neglected by both 

researchers and academics until recently although this type of translation practice 

was always widespread: 

A clear paradox exists which emphasizes the surprising imbalance between the 
little research on audiovisual translation and its enormous impact on society. In 
numerical terms, the translation carried out in the audiovisual realm is the most 
important translational activity of our time. Firstly, because of the high number of 



6 

 

 

 

people it reaches, mainly through television. Secondly, because of the large 
quantity of translated products which cross over to other cultures: documentaries, 
films, news, debates, concerts, television series, etc. Thirdly, because of the 
immediacy of its reception: television, cinema, DVD. (p.50) 
 
 

It can be said that audiovisual translation has attracted the attention of translation 

studies since the 1990s. Developments in technology, the establishment of 

different channels, the competition between channels to present the most up-to-

date programs and their desire to transfer or adapt popular TV series and movies 

into their own language, developments in the cinema industry, the spread of 

DVDs and CDs and the rising digital platforms can be listed among the reasons 

behind this attention. All these developments have increased the need for 

translators in this field and have led to AVT gaining importance and being studied 

within translation studies. 

1.1.1. Name and Nature of Audiovisual Translation 

The field of AVT has been referred to in many different ways throughout the 

history of TS. The origins of audiovisual translation practices actually date back 

to as early as the origins of cinema itself. The initial examples being subtitles, or 

rather intertitles specifically. However, it has attracted the attention of translation 

theorists since the 1990s when it became more visible in parallel with the increase 

in audiovisual products. 

Gambier (2003) states that this field was referred initially to as ‘film translation’. It 

is not surprising such a name is given to the field considering that the first 

examples produced and studied were those of film translations. Delabastita 

(1989) initially highlighted AVT as ‘a virgin research field’ (p.202) in his ground-

breaking article entitled “Translation and mass-communication: Film and TV 

translation as evidence of cultural dynamics”. He states that translation studies is 

reluctant to include film translation in their field. However, there has been major 

progress since then. 

Munday (2016) refers to Reiss’s ‘audio-medial’ text type where he indicates that 

“indeed her definition seemed to refer more to fields such as advertising rather 



7 

 

 

 

than film and documentary translation” (p.275) and discusses the category of 

‘medium-restricted’ theories in James S. Holmes map where there is “no specific 

mention of audiovisual at all.” (p.276). Gambier (2003) states that ‘language 

transfer’ in movies, videos and television programs can be considered a new 

genre (p.178). 

Some of the researchers, on the other hand, have stated in their studies that 

audiovisual translation is a sub-branch of literary translation. Mary Snell Hornby 

(1988) classifies three groups of translation: general language translation, special 

language translation, and literary translation where literary translation includes 

stage/film translation (p.32). Susan Bassnett (2002) has analyzed film translation 

in her book Translation Studies under the heading of Translation and Literature; 

The fourth category, loosely called Translation and Poetics, includes the whole 
area of literary translation, in theory and practice. Studies may be general or 
genre-specific, including investigation of the particular problems of translating 
poetry, theatre texts or libretti and the affiliated problem of translation for the 
cinema, whether dubbing or sub-titling. (p.18) 
 
 

Diaz Cintas (2009) asserts that both Snell-Hornby and Bassnett “place dubbing 

and subtitling within the larger area of literary translation, equating them with 

‘cinema translation’ and ‘film translation’” (p.5). However, he disagrees with them 

in this respect: 

It is my contention that AVT practices like dubbing, subtitling or voiceover are not 
merely variants of literary, drama or poetry translation, but rather that they are 
translational modes belonging to a superordinate text type – the audiovisual one 
– that operates in contradistinction to the written-only and the spoken-only types. 
(p.6) 
 
 

Karamitroglou (2000) lists the reasons why he prefers to use the term audio-

visual translation as follows: 

Of the two terms (audiovisual vs. screen translation), I prefer ‘audiovisual 
translation’ because it emphasizes the audio-visual dimensions of the 
communicative mode. Unlike communication through books, radio, telephone, or 
sign language, audio-visual communication implies that both the acoustic 
channel through air vibrations and the visual channel through light waves are 
simultaneously utilized... I also prefer the term ‘audiovisual translation’ to ‘film 
translation’ because certain scholars restrict the notion of ‘films’ to full-length 



8 

 

 

 

feature films, i.e. to movies only, or sometimes even to cinema-movies only, 
leaving out series, sports programmes and documentaries. (pp.1-2) 
 
 

Film translation, screen translation, versioning, and multimedia translation can be 

listed among the names of this field throughout the history of AVT. However, Diaz 

Cintas and Remael (2007) concluded that “audiovisual translation (AVT) was fast 

becoming the standard referent” (as cited in Munday, 2016, p.278). Diaz Cintas 

(as cited in Reich, 2006) defines AVT as “the translation of products in which the 

verbal dimension is supplemented by elements in other media” and he suggests 

three possibilities where AVT takes place: 

1) the message is conveyed only auditorily as, for example, in songs and radio 
programmes, or 
2) the only channel used is the visual one: comic strips, published 
advertisements, etc. or 
3) both auditory and visual channels convey the message as in products such as 
films, CD-ROMs or documentaries. (p.8) 
 
 

Delabastita (1989) describes AVT as ‘a multi-channel and multi-code type of 

communication’ (p.196) and puts forth four elements to define audiovisual text 

including: 

1. The acoustic-verbal: dialogue, monologue, songs, voice-off. 
2. The acoustic-nonverbal: musical score, sound effects, noises. 
3. The visual-nonverbal: image, photography, gestures. 
4. The visual-verbal: inserts, banners, letters, messages on computer screens, 

newspaper headlines. (as cited in Chiaro, Heiss &Bucaira, 2008, p. 3) 
 

 
Sierra (2008) defines AVT as the translation of a text that gathers a large number 

of sign codes, transmitted through two simultaneous and complementary 

channels (auditory and visual). Perez Gonzalez (2009) states it is “a branch of 

translation studies concerned with the transfer of multimodal and multimedial 

texts into another language and/or culture” (p.13). As can be understood from 

these definitions, audiovisual text consists of at least two communication 

channels; an acoustic channel consisting of paralinguistic information, 

soundtracks, special effects, and a visual channel including images, colors, 

movements, posters, or captions with linguistic signs. 



9 

 

 

 

 

1.1.2. Common Types of Audiovisual Translation 

The number of modes or types in AVT has also been an issue of debate. The 

study carried out by Ana Isabel Bartolome and Gustavo Mendiluce Cabrera 

(2005, p. 104), states that scholars such as Chaume, Gambier, Diaz Cintas, Linde 

and Kay, Chaves, Agost, and Luyken have counted 13 modes at the most until 

2005. 

Table 1. AVT modes derived from Bartolome & Cabrera’s (2005, p.104) study 

 

Linde and Kay (1999) suggest that audiovisual text is either subtitled or revoiced 

and all the other modes are just sub-types of these modes of AVT. In the same 

vein, Chaume (2013) speaks of two main macro-modes; revoicing and 

captioning, and explains as follows: 

…either a new soundtrack is added in the target language, and the sound is 
synchronized with the images (post-synchronization of sound, i.e., revoicing) or 
a written translation or transcription is inserted on the screen (captioning), so that 
the translation can be read while the on-screen characters speak and act out their 
dialogues. (p.107) 
 
 



10 

 

 

 

Apart from these two main conventional modes of AVT, Okyayuz (2017) suggests 

that other modes, one of which is remakes, should be problematized and studied 

within translation studies. However, only two main modes of AVT, subtitling and 

dubbing, will be explained on the ground that the focus of the study is “remakes”. 

In this respect, similarities and differences between these types will be clarified 

before moving on to remakes. 

1.1.2.1. Subtitling 

The first subtitling practice was inherent in intertitles the langueg displayed on 

frames on screen to add information to the silent movie; subtitles as we know 

them today that first appeared on screen in 1903 with the film Uncle Tom’s Cabin. 

They differ from one another in terms of many facets including for example 

synchronization. Gottlieb (2005) briefly makes the distinction by indicating that 

the subtitles are synchronized with the dialogue of the movie, whereas the 

intertitles appeared between scenes and covered the entire screen. Subtitling, as 

we know it today, is being practiced since 1929 when The Singing Fool was 

broadcast with Danish subtitles (Gottlieb, 2005) and is defined by Diaz Cintas 

and Remael (2007) as 

…a translation practice that consists of presenting a written text, generally on the 
lower part of the screen, that endeavors to recount the original dialogue of the 
speakers, as well as the discursive elements that appear in the image (letters, 
inserts, graffiti, inscriptions, placards, and the like), and the information that is 
contained on the soundtrack (songs, voices off). (p. 7) 
 
 

Gottlieb, a prominent scholar in the field, defines it as “the rendering in a different 

language of verbal messages in filmic media, in the shape of one or more lines 

of written text, presented on the screen in sync with the original verbal message” 

(as cited in Orero 2004: 86). Chiaro (2012) summarizes it as “an abbreviated 

written translation of what can be heard on-screen” (p. 4). Chaume (2013) states 

that this type of AVT “consists of incorporating a written text (subtitles) in the 

target language on the screen where an original version film is shown, such that 

the subtitles coincide approximately with the screen actors’ dialogues”( p.112). 

He also asserts that subtitling is studied more than dubbing in academia because 



11 

 

 

 

the countries promote it more in practice. From a linguistic perspective,there are 

two types of subtitling ‘intra-lingual’ where the oral and the written language 

(subtitles) are the same, and ‘inter-lingual’ where the oral and the written 

language (subtitles) are different. 

Some of the advantages of subtitling can be summarized as follows: 

• Subtitling is not as expensive as the other main type of AVT (dubbing), 

• Subtitling does not as long to produce as dubbing, 

• The original soundtrack is preserved in broadcasting, 

• Subtitling reception may promote language learning, 

• It is an accessibility option for people who are deaf and hard-of-hearing, 

or for immigrants and tourists. 

On the other hand, subtitles that appear on top of the original visuals at the bottom 

of the screen (or in another spots according to placement) may be said to 

‘contaminate’ the image and can be found annoying by the audience because the 

attention of the audience is split between the image, and subtitles. Since this 

cognitive multitasking may be taxing there may also be a drop in comprehension. 

As is the case with all translations, subtitling also has its own set of constraints.. 

Pederson (2011) classifies three types of constraints in subtitling: “spatial 

constraints, temporal constraints, and constraints stipulated by a semiotic switch 

from spoken to written language” (p.18). Spatial constraints are related to the 

space factors such as a maximum number of lines or characters per line, whereas 

temporal constraints are connected to the reading speed of the audience 

(character per second). Constraints stipulated by a semiotic switch from spoken 

to written language can also be referred to as textual constraints that are imposed 

on the subtitles by the visual context. 

1.1.2.2. Dubbing 

Dubbing mainly involves the translation of audiovisual materials in lip-synch. 

Luyken et al. (1991), state that dubbing is “the replacement of the original speech 

by a voice-track which is a faithful translation of the original speech and which 

attempts to reproduce the timing, phrasing and lip movements of the original” (p. 



12 

 

 

 

73). In the same vein, Karamitroglou (2000) describes it as “a specific revoicing 

technique attempts to cover entirely the spoken source text with a target text 

adjusted to fit the -visible- lip movements of the original” (pp.5-6). One of the 

foremost scholars in the field, Diaz Cintas (2003) explains dubbing as follows: 

Dubbing involves replacing the original soundtrack containing the actors’ 
dialogue with a target language (TL) recording that reproduces the original 
message, while at the same time ensuring that the TL sounds and the actors’ lip 
movements are more or less synchronized. (p.195) 
 
 

As in subtitling, synchronization is one of the essential elements of dubbing. 

Three types of synchronization can be discussed within this process; kinetic 

synchrony, isochrony, lip synchrony. In kinetic synchrony, the translation is 

harmonized with the movements and the gestures of the actors. The aim here is 

to eliminate any contradiction between what is seen on the screen and what is 

said. Isochrony refers to the process, where the spoken phrases and pauses in 

the source and those in the translated audiovisual material are matched to be of 

the same duration. Last but not least, phonetic synchronization or lip synchrony 

can be defined as the harmony in the lip movements of the actors. Therefore, lip 

synchrony is the most challenging feature and requires specific knowledge and 

extreme attention to details (Chaume, 2012). 

Diaz Cintas (2002) also compares these two main modes of AVT as shown in the 

table below: 

Table 2: Comparison of Subtitling and Dubbing According to Diaz Cintas 

Subtitling Dubbing 

Cheap Expensive 

Respects the integrity of the original 

dialogue 
The original dialogue is lost 

Reasonably quick Takes longer  time 

Promotes the learning of foreign 

languages 
Pretends to be a domestic product 

Quality of original actors’ voices 
Dubbing actors’ voices can be 

repetitive 

Suits the hearing impaired/helps 

immigrants 
Suits poor readers 



13 

 

 

 

Pollutes the image Respects the image of the original 

Requires more reduction of the 

original information 
Conveys more original information 

Does not allow the overlapping of 

dialogue 
Allows the overlapping of dialogue 

Dispersion of attention: image and 

written text 
Viewer can focus on images 

Viewer will lose sense if distracted 
Viewer can follow the sense even if 

distracted from watching 

Constrained by space and time Constrained by lip-syncing 

Two different linguistic codes 

simultaneously can be disorientating 
Only one linguistic code 

Can detract from the cinematic 

illusion 
Allows more cinematic illusion 

 

Perez-Gonzales (2009) assumes dubbing as ‘the most effective method” when 

translating audiovisual materials addressed at children or people with a restricted 

degree of literacy since it does not distract their attention like subtitling. Perez-

Gonzalez also refers to a view of countries being divided into two groups; 

subtitling or and dubbing countries. The researcher discusses how the line 

between choosing one of these two main modes has blurred developments 

especially in technology: 

Until the mid-1990s, the audiovisual marketplace remained divided into two major 
clusters: subtitling versus dubbing countries. Since then, however, we have 
witnessed a series of changes in the audiovisual landscape, including the ever-
growing volume of programmes and broadcast outlets, the development of 
digitization techniques and the emergence of new patterns in the distribution and 
consumption of audiovisual products. This has contributed to blurring the lines 
between the formerly opposing camps: in any given market, ‘dominant’ or 
traditional forms of audiovisual transfer now co-exist with other ‘challenging’ or 
less widespread types. (p.18) 
 

1.2. REMAKES 

Remakes have been studied in the world and in Turkey within various disciplines, 

although the number of studies published on this subject in Turkey are quite 

limited especially within the realm of TS. The fact that remakes are studied in 

fields such as media and film studies, television studies, adaptation studies, and 

translation studies, result in differences of opinion. It is possible to find many 



14 

 

 

 

differing definitions of remakes as well as differing typologies and categorizations. 

These definitions and types will be explained in detail in the following sections. A 

comprehensive definition of remakes, comes from Leicht who briefly defines them 

as ‘the new versions of old films’ can be given (as cited in Duman, p.19). Lütticken 

(2004, p.104) claimed that the Lumiere brothers' movie "La Sortie des Usines 

Lumière à Lyon" was the first remake and states that it was remade three times. 

Büyükyıldırım (2005, p.17) states that remakes are not unique to America and 

that they were produced by many national cinemas since the silent period. 

It is important to understand the motivation to remake, when there are other 

common modes of AVT. Allen (1995) states that, according to studies, TV series 

are place first in terms of popularity in the world (as cited in Okyayuz, 2016, 

p.215). Okyayuz underlines the commercial logic behind releasing a localized 

version of a TV series in a target country since it has already garnered popularity 

in another. 

Çevikoğlu (2018) evaluates this commercially motivated logic in Turkey and 

states that the demand for Turkish productions in this field started to increase: 

This rise in demand for Turkish production had to be met by producers and as an 
intelligent and fast solution to this issue, remakes from foreign sources became 
the most viable option. They can be regarded as a strategy to realize a production 
with optimum efficiency and efficacy (p.16) 
 
[Throughout the thesis, all the Turkish quotations are translated into English by 

the researcher unless otherwise stated.] 

 

On the other hand, it is a fact that remakes can be shaped and produced 

according to political and ideological perspectives considering that they are 

examples of 'the ultimate free translation' (Nornes, 2007, p.8). Duman (2022) 

highlights their political and ideological aspects and exemplifies this situation as 

follows: 

A remake may have also been produced in the light of political or ideological 
views. For example, a movie or TV series in which the woman's sexuality is 
objectified can then be taken from a feminist point of view and remade. Cristina 
Lucia Stasia (2014) exemplifies this kind of failed remakes with the film Charlie’s 
Angels (2011), which is a remake of the television series aired between 1976-



15 

 

 

 

1981 with the same name and says “this is one reason that the reboot failed: it 
wanted women to see the Angels as heroes yet also pandered to straight men, 
sexualizing the Angels” (pp.19-20). 
 
 

When the history of Turkish cinema is examined, it is possible to see similar 

examples since the 1930s due to economic, political, and ideological reasons. 

When the history of Turkish television is analysed, it is obvious that the first 

remakes were sitcoms. Tunstall (2008) also states that “[m]ost people around the 

world prefer to be entertained by people who look the same, talk the same, joke 

the same, play the same, and have the same beliefs (and worldview) as 

themselves […]” (p. xiv).  

Examples of a story retold in another culture and language were initially named 

adaptations and thus the issue of what the concepts of adaptation and remake 

need to be clarified. Many scholars have attempted this from multiple different 

perspectives. For example, Duran (2020) emphasizes the visual shifts while 

examining the concepts of adaptation and remake by saying:  

…adaptation first showed itself only in written literature, and then started to take 
a completely different name with visual shifts. This was called “remake” which 
means re-telling, re-translating, and replaying” (p.1) 
 
 

O'Thomas (2010, p.49), on the other hand, classifies adaptations into 3 broad 

categories. He places remakes under the 2nd category and underlines that two 

axis should be taken into account in the classification. According to O'Thomas, 

one of these two axis is the medium in which the product is produced, and the 

other is the culture. Okyayuz (2017, p.113) tabulates O'Thomas' classification as 

follows adding her own examples: 

Table 3: O’Thomas’ Adaptation Classification (as cited in Okyayuz, 2017, p.113) 

1 
Ortam 1 

Kültür 1 

 

Ör: Bir kitabın, aynı zamansal dönemi, karakterleri ve 

diyalogları içerecek şekilde, aynı dilde, film olarak 

uyarlanması. 

Ortam 2 

Kültür 1 

2 
Ortam 1 

Kültür 1 

 

Ör: Yabancı bir dizinin başka bir dil ve kültürde yeniden 

çevrimi. 

Ortam 1 

Kültür 2 



16 

 

 

 

3 
Ortam 1 

Kültür 1 

 

Ör: Klasik bir tiyatro oyununun, çağdaş diyaloglar ve 

setlerle, bir televizyon dizisi veya filmi olarak 

uyarlanması. 

Ortam 2 

Kültür 2 

Although the boundaries of the concepts of adaptation and remake are still not 

clear, definitions generally suggest that there should be a medium change if a 

product is to be labeled an adaptation. Underpinning this argument, Brashinsky 

(1998) clearly states the difference as follows: “unlike the stage production of a 

play or the film adaptation of a literary work, the remake interprets the work of the 

same medium”. Similarly, Loock and Verevis (2012) reinforce this distinction 

between the two: 

…what typically distinguishes the concepts is the relation between the new 
version—adaptation or remake—and the medium of the original artifact. A 
remake is generally considered a version of another film, whereas one of the 
principal arguments of adaptation theory is concerned with the movement 
between different semiotic registers, most often between literature and film (p. 6). 
 
 

As exemplified with various perspectives from different scholars, defining 

remakes is a complex issue. Thus, it might be useful to look at the taxonomies 

on this subject  

1.2.1. Taxonomies of Remakes 

There are several taxonomies on remakes and one of the first ones is Druxman’s 

classification of Hollywood remakes into three groups (as cited in Verevis, 2006, 

p.7): 

1. the disguised remake: a literary property is either updated with minimal change, 
or retitled and then disguised by new settings and original characters, but in either 
case the new film does not seek to draw attention to its earlier version(s), for 
example Colorado Territory (Raoul Walsh, 1949) is a disguised Western remake 
of the crime film High Sierra (Raoul Walsh, 1941); and High Society (Charles 
Walters, 1956) is a musical retelling of The Philadelphia Story (Joseph L. 
Mankiewicz, 1940); 

2. the direct remake: a property may undergo some alterations or even adopt a 
new title, but the new film and its narrative image do not hide the fact that it is 
based upon an earlier production, for example William Wellman’s 1939 remake 
of Beau Geste (Herbert Brenon, 1926), or Charles Vidor’s 1957 remake of A 
Farewell to Arms (Frank Borzage, 1932); 



17 

 

 

 

3. the non-remake: a new film goes under the same title as a familiar property but 
there is an entirely new plot, for example Michael Curtiz’s 1940 version of The 
Sea Hawk (part of the above-mentioned Errol Flynn swashbuckling cycle) is said 
to bear little relation to First National’s 1924 adaptation of the Rafael Sabatini 
novel, and the 1961 remake of The Thief of Baghdad (Arthur Lubin and Bruno 
Vailati) is little like the ‘definitive’ 1940 version (directed by Ludwig Berger, 
Michael Powell and Tim Whelan) 

Thomas Leitch (2002), in his Twice-Told Tales Disavowal and the Rhetoric of the 

Remake, puts forward ‘four possible stances’ of remakes: readaptation, update, 

homage, and true remake. According to Leitch’s classification, the first one is the 

simplest form. It includes the readaptation of a reputed literary work by ignoring 

its previous ‘cinematic adaptations’ and is faithful to the original text (the literary 

work). He distinguishes updates, in that they are “characterized by their overtly 

revisionary stance toward an original text they treat as classic” (Leitch, 2002, 

p.47). By homage, he alludes to the remakes that are dedicated to and ‘pay 

tribute to an earlier film’ and do not claim to be better than the original versions. 

Unlike homage, this last stance, the true remakes “deal[s] with the contradictory 

claims of all remakes – that they are just like their originals only better – [by 

combining] a focus on a cinematic original with an accommodating stance which 

seeks to make the original relevant by updating it” (as cited in Verevis, 2006, 

p.13). Generally Leitch is referring to intralingual remakes in his varieties. 

Eberwein (1998, pp. 15-33) discusses remakes in detail in his book chapter titled 

Remakes and Cultural Studies where he proposes probably the most 

comprehensive classification of remakes with fifteen categories which are further 

subcategorized: 

1. a) A silent film remade as a sound film: Ben Hur (Fred Niblo, 1926, and William 
Wyler,1959); 

b) a silent film remade by the same director as a sound film: Ernst Lubitsch's Kiss 
Me Again (1925) and That Uncertain Feeling (1941) or Cecil B. DeMille's The Ten 
Commandments (1923 and 1956); 

c) a major director's silent film remade as a sound film by a different major 
director: F. W. Murnau's Nosferatu (1922) and Werner Herzog's Nosferatu, the 
Vampire (1979). 

2. a) A sound film remade by the same director in the same country: Frank 
Capra's Lady for a Day (1936) and A Pocketful of Miracles (1961); 



18 

 

 

 

b) a sound film remade by the same director in a different country in which the 
same language is spoken: Alfred Hitchcock's The Man Who Knew Too Much 
(1934, England, and 1954, United States); 

c) a sound film remade by the same director in a different country with a different 
language: Roger Vadim's And God Created Woman . . . (1957, France, and 1987, 
United States). 

3. A film made by a director consciously drawing on elements and movies of 
another director: Howard Hawks's and Brian DePalma's Scarface (1932 and 
1983); Alfred Hitchcock's Vertigo (1959) (and Rear Window [1955] and Psycho 
[1960]), and DePalma's Obsession (1976), Body Double (1984), and Raising 
Cain (1992). 

His first three classification mainly involves a film being remade as another film, 

maybe in another period, with minor technical or directorial changes and in the 

same language. Type four in his classification can be said to be completely 

American-centric. 

4. a) A film made in the United States remade as a foreign film: Diary of a 
Chambermaid by Jean Renoir (1946, France) and Luis Buñuel (1964, France); 

b) a film made in a foreign country remade in another foreign country: Yojimbo 
(Akira Kurosawa, 1961) and A Fistful of Dollars (Sergio Leone, 1964); 

c) a foreign film remade in another foreign country and remade a second time in 
the United States: La Femme Nikita (Luc Besson, 1990, France), Black Cat 
(1992, Hong Kong) (thanks to Scott Higgins), and Point of No Return (John 
Badham, 1993); 

d) a foreign film remade in the United States: La Chienne (Jean Renoir, 1931) 
and Scarlet Street (Fritz Lang, 1945) and Breathless (Jean-Luc Godard, 1960, 
and Jim McBride, 1983). 

His fifth type takes into account silent and sound eras, whereas type six requires 

a change in the medium that is generally used to define adaptation. However, 

unlike adaptation, remakes requirea change in the medium of audiovisual 

products in his classification.   

5. a) Films with multiple remakes spanning the silent and sound eras: Sadie 
Thompson (Raoul Walsh, 1928), Rain (Lewis Milestone, 1932) and Miss Sadie 
Thompson (Curtis Bernhardt, 1953); 23 

b) films remade within the silent and sound eras as well as for television: Madame 
X (Lionel Barrymore, 1929 [the third silent remake of the silent film]; Sam Wood, 
1937; David Lowell-Rich, 1966 [the Lana Turner version]; and, for television, 
Robert Ellis Miller, 1981 [with Tuesday Weld]). 



19 

 

 

 

6. a) A film remade as television film: Sweet Bird of Youth (Richard Brooks, 1962, 
and Nicholas Roeg, 1989); 

b) a film remade as a television miniseries: East of Eden (Elia Kazan, 1955, and 
Harvey Hart, 1981); 

c) a television series remade as a film: Maverick (Richard Donner, 1994) and The 
Flintstones (Brian Levant, 1994). 

From type seven onwards, he pays attention to varying shifts from the 

originalincluding dimensions such as temporal and cultural setting, genre, gender 

as well as race. 

7. a) A remake that changes the cultural setting of a film: The Big Sleep (Howard 
Hawks, 1946, United States, and Michael Winner, 1978, Great Britain); 

b) a remake that updates the temporal setting of a film: Murder, My Sweet 
(Edward Dmytryk, 1944) and Farewell My Lovely (Dick Richards, 1975); A Star 
Is Born (William Wellman, 1937, George Cukor, 1954, and Frank Pierson, 1976); 
Out of the Past (Jacques Tourneur, 1948) and Against All Odds (Taylor Hackford, 
1984); 

c) a remake that changes the genre and cultural setting of the film: The Lives of 
a Bengal Lancer (Henry Hathaway, 1935) remade as a western, Geronimo (Paul 
H. Sloane, 1939); the western High Noon (Fred Zinnemann, 1954) remade as the 
science fiction film Outland (Peter Hyams, 1981). 

8. a) A remake that switches the gender of the main characters: The Front Page 
(Lewis Milestone, 1931); His Gal Friday (Howard Hawks, 1941); 

b) a remake that reworks more explicitly the sexual relations in a film: William 
Wyler's These Three (1936) and The Children's Hour (1961); The Blue Lagoon 
(Frank Launder, 1949, and Randal Kleiser, 1980). 

9. A remake that changes the race of the main characters: Anna Lucasta (Irving 
Rapper, 1949, with Paulette Goddard; Arnold Laven, 1958, with Eartha Kitt). 

10. A remake in which the same star plays the same part: Ingrid Bergman in the 
Swedish and American versions of Intermezzo (Gustav Molander, 1936, and 
Gregory Ratoff, 1939); Bing Crosby in Holiday Inn (Mark Sandrich, 1942) and 
Holiday Inn (Michael Curtiz, 1954). 

11. A remake of a sequel to a film that is itself the subject of multiple remakes: 
The Bride of Frankenstein (James Whale, 1975) and The Bride (Frank Roddam, 
1985). 

12. Comic and parodic remakes: Frankenstein (James Whale, 1931) and Young 
Frankenstein (Mel Brooks, 1954); Strangers on a Train (Alfred Hitchcock, 1951) 
and Throw Mamma from the Train (Danny DeVito, 1987). 24 



20 

 

 

 

13. Pornographic remakes: Ghostbusters (Ivan Reitman, 1984) and Ghostlusters 
(1991); Truth or Dare (Alex Kashishian, 1991) and Truth or Bare (1992) (thanks 
to Peter Lehman). 

14. A remake that changes the color and/or aspect ratio of the original: The Thing 
(Christian Nyby, 1951, black-and-white; John Carpenter, 1982, color and 
Panavision); Invasion of the Body Snatchers (Don Siegel, 1956, black-and-white 
and Superscope; Phil Kaufman, 1978, color and 1.85 to 1 aspect ratio). 

15. An apparent remake whose status as a remake is denied by the director; 
Michelangelo Antonioni's Blow-Up (1966) and Francis Ford Coppola's The 
Conversation (1974) (pp. 15-33). 
 
 

Rüdiger Heinze and Lucia Kramer (2015), in Remakes and Remaking – 

Preliminary Reflections, point out that Eberwein’s (1998) classification spans 

various topics such as “aspects of technology, nationality, medium, gender and 

race, temporal and cultural setting as well as genre” (p.10).They also criticize his 

point of view in that the distinction is quite US-centric and that “his inconsistent 

mixture of distinction criteria ultimately renders his typology quite arbitrary” 

(Heinze & Kramer, 2015, p.10). 

The subjects of this thesis, the American sitcom series The Nanny’s Turkish 

remake Dadı, can be described as a direct remake according to the classification 

by Druxman since it refers to the original version in the opening and closing 

credits. In addition, these sitcom series fall under the seventh type in the more 

detailed classification of remakes presented by Eberwein because there is 

obviously a change in the cultural setting from the American to the Turkish. 

Therefore, it may be appropriate to analyze and examine the subject of this thesis 

within the framework of Eberwein’s categories. 

As for the classification of remakes within translation studies, Okyayuz (2016) 

groups remakes into several categories, by giving examples from Turkey: 

Firstly, remakes can be classified depending on different types of audiovisual 
products; remakes of movies or series can be mentioned (e.g. Aşk-ı Memnu is a 
product that was remade both as a film and a TV series). Secondly, the remake 
of the same movie or series in the same culture with a certain temporal interval 
can be mentioned (e.g. Çalıkuşu). Thirdly, somewhere between the remake and 
the adaptation axis, a series can be a remade as a movie or a movie can be 
remade as a series. Finally, there can be a contemporary remake of a 
contemporary film or series for a different culture and language (pp.221-222). 



21 

 

 

 

 

 
Although remakes were initially defined by taking into account films, which are 

only one type of audiovisual product, they are now being studied also within the 

scope of television series. 

1.2.2. Remakes within Translation Studies 

When the studies on the subject are examined, it is possible to say that remakes 

are overlooked and insufficiently studied within the translation studies. As a 

scholar focusing on film remakes, Evans (2018, p.1) expresses this situation as 

follows: 

“…remakes are seldom included in overviews of translation theory such as The 
Routledge Encyclopedia of Translation Studies (Baker and Saldanha 2008) or 
Jeremy Munday’s Introducing Translation Studies (2012). Even in some 
overviews of work on audiovisual translation (e.g. Chiaro 2009 or O’Connell 2007) 
remakes are not mentioned. In other cases, remakes are briefly mentioned but 
the text focuses mainly on other audiovisual modalities such as subtitling and 
dubbing (examples of this include Delabastita 1990; Gambier 2003, 2004; 
O’Sullivan 2011).” (p.1) 
 

 
The main reason why remakes, almost dating back to the beginning of cinema 

itself, are less studied within translation studies is that there are differences of 

opinion on whether remakes can be studied within the scope of translation 

studies; and if they are, what the contributions to the field would be. While some 

translation theorists argue that this may bring transdisciplinary interaction, others 

argue that this may cause unnecessary overlap and duplication since remakes 

are also studied within other disciplines (Okyayuz, 2017, p.112). 

Although there are debates on this subject within translation studies, it is 

interesting that some scholars from film studies consider ‘translation as a way of 

discussing remakes’. Evans (2018, p.2) asserts several examples regarding this 

matter: 

Jennifer Forrest and Leonard Koos, for example, use the traditional categories of 
free and literal translation (which translation studies has generally moved away 
from) to suggest ways in which remakes might be conceptualised (2002: 15). 
Other scholars have similarly used translation as a metaphor for the remaking 
process (Aufderheide 1998; Wills 1998; Grindstaff 2001; Leitch 2002; Booth and 



22 

 

 

 

Ekdale 2011). While these scholars compare remakes to translations, there is 
work that more specifically reads remakes through translation theory. Lucy 
Mazdon, for instance, uses Lawrence Venuti’s concept of ‘foreignizing translation’ 
in her Encore Hollywood (2000) and elsewhere (Mazdon 2004) to explain her 
approach to remakes as a ‘site of difference’ (Mazdon 2000: 27). Yiman Wang 
(2008) also borrows from Venuti in her analysis of how Hong Kong remakes 
inscribe foreignness. Taking a slightly different approach, Laurence Raw (2010) 
uses skopos theory to discuss the Michael Winner’s remake of The Big Sleep 
(1978). 
 

 
As for the translation studies, Gottlieb, Evans and Okyayuz are among the 

scholars who advocate studying remakes within translation studies. Henrik 

Gottlieb (2005) considers remaking as a form of translation: 

In the interlingual sub-category, another phenomenon attracting a lot of public 
attention is remakes of films. Instead of merely translating the verbal elements 
(as in dubbing and subtitling, see below), a remake transplants the entire film, 
setting and all, into the target culture. The resulting film may appear to be an 
original work, but as it is based on an existing storyline etc., it is indeed a 
translation. 
 
 

Gottlieb (2005, p.5) further describes remakes as isosemiotic (channels of source 

and target are the same), interlingual and inspirational products –‘more free and 

less predictable’ than conventionalized translation– and classifies them within 

intrasemiotic translation types, where sign systems of source and target are 

identical resulting in a semiotic equivalence: 

Table 4. Henrik Gottlieb’s (2005, p. 7) classification of intrasemiotic translation types

 



23 

 

 

 

 

In the same vein, Evans (2014) focuses on interlingual remakes and defines them 

as “a cinematic subset of translation characterized by key elements of 

multimodality, corporate authorship and norms of adaptation” (p.300) and points 

out that they are affected by social, industrial and economic factors (Erguvan, 

2020) 

Okyayuz is another scholar who contributes to the field in this subject by focusing 

on and analyzing the remakes in Turkey. Okyayuz (2016) argues that remakes 

give clues about in which circumstances the stories that are shaped in a particular 

culture can be accepted by the target audience when they are conveyed. In her 

categorization of several remaking practices, she gives particular importance to 

the distinction between film remakes and TV series remakes and points out that 

the most obvious difference between these two practices is ‘the difficulty of 

matching narrative parity’ (Okyayuz, 2016, p.215). In addition, Okyayuz examines 

the subject from a different perspective and draws attention to Toury’s (1995) 

postulates that are necessary for a product to be called a translation. The first 

one of these three postulates is ‘the source-text postulate’ which requires the 

presence of a source text in another language and culture. Thus, the first 

postulate paves the way for “the transfer postulate” with “the assumption that the 

process whereby the assumed translation came into being involved the 

transference from the assumed source text of certain features that the two now 

share”(Toury, p.29). The third postulate, ‘the relationship postulate’ in Toury’s 

words, refers to the relationship between the original and the target text. Okyayuz 

(2016), by referring to Toury's postulates, justifies analyzing the remakes she 

examined under translation studies and also states that these remakes accept 

the existence of the source text through the opening and closing credits 

presented on the remake (p.226). In the same vein, the case study chapter of the 

thesis clearly states that the subject of this thesis has a source version and that 

the source version has a relation with the target version. Thus, it enables us to 

examine these two versions of the TV series within translation studies on the 



24 

 

 

 

grounds that it can be defined as a translation within the framework of Toury’s 

postulates. 

1.2.3. A Glimpse History of Remakes in Turkey 

As mentioned before, the history of audio-visual translation dates back to the 

beginning of the history of cinema. Since these two fields are intertwined with 

each other, it is almost impossible to separate the history of cinema when 

referring to the history of audio-visual translation (Okyayuz & Kaya, 2017, p.65.). 

When we look at the history of audio-visual translation, it is seen that in previous 

decades countries were divided into dubbing and subtitling countries due to both 

economic and different reasons. In Turkey, the first studies on this subject were 

mostly related to dubbing. Eren (2008), stated that the history of Turkish dubbing 

started with Nazım Hikmet and that he had been both directing and writing 

dubbing scripts for a long time. Considering that dubbing is concurrent with the 

history of voiceover, Eren (2008) states that the first sound film in cinemas was 

screened on September 25, 1929 in Turkey. The Turkish name of this movie, 

which was screened at the Kadıköy Opera House, is "Kadının Askere Gidişi". 

With further technological developments, in later years there was a transition from 

the cinema screens to television screens. The first television broadcast in Turkey 

started in 1952. The first television series, Bedava Dünya Gezisi was broadcasted 

on May 17, 1972; it was dubbed into Turkish from French (“TRT Kilometre 

Taşları”, n.d.).  

Referring to the development of the film industry in Turkey, Gürata (2006, pp.242-

244) also refers to remakes that are a part of the audiovisual translation: 

The Turkish film industry, which had grown rapidly in the 1950s, became by the 
1960s one of the largest film-producing national industries, with an average 
annual production of 200 movies. In 1972, just before the economic crisis that 
affected the movie industry severely, Turkey ranked third among the major film-
producing countries with 301 movies. Almost 90 percent of these movies, 
however, were remakes, adaptations, or spin-offs... the motive behind remakes 
is the assembly-line production system that limits the time and effort spent on 
each production... remaking a movie in a culturally different context involves a lot 
of problems. There are a number of issues to be concerned such as moral codes 
and cultural values… Therefore, it is quite doubtful whether remakes involve less 
creative effort or are more cost-effective compared to original films. 



25 

 

 

 

 
 

Examples of films and TV series that are remade in Turkey can be given from the 

Yeşilçam period; which was especially intense in the 1970s and 80s. However, 

as Gürata (2006, p. 242) states, the source texts of most of these films, , was not 

credited. Therefore, these films are called "turksploitation films", a sub-genre of 

"exploitation films".. Some examples can be listed as follows (“Hollywood film ve 

dizilerinin Yeşilçam uyarlamaları listesi”, n.d.): 

Dracula (Drakula) 1931 → Drakula İstanbul'da 1953 

Tarzan the Ape Man 1932 → Tarzan İstanbul'da 1952 

The Wizard of Oz 1951 → Ayşecik ve Sihirli Cüceler Rüyalar Ülkesinde 1971 

Viva Zapata 1952 → Reşo: Vatan İçin 1974 

Roman Holiday 1953 → İstanbul Tatili 1968 

Sabrina 1954 → Şoförün Kızı 1965 

Some like it hot 1959 Fıstık Gibi 1970 

The Sound of Music 1965 → Sen Bir Meleksin 1969 

Batman 1966 → Betmen Yarasa Adam 1973 

Dirty Harry 1971 → Kelepçe 1982 

The Sting 1973 → Belalılar 1974 

The Exorcist 1973 → Şeytan 1974 

Jaws 1975 → Çöl 1983 

Star Wars 1977 → Dünyayı Kurtaran Adam 1982 

E.T. 1982 → Badi 1983 

Tootsie 1982 → Şabaniye 1984 

First Blood 1982 → Vahşi Kan 1983 

Especially after the 2000s, remakes of TV series became a trend in Turkey. 

Although it is seen that the remade series are mostly American, there are also 

remake series from different countries such as the the UK, Argentina, and Korea. 

Erguvan (2020) listed the remake series in Turkish television broadcasting 

between 2000-2020 in his doctoral thesis. Some of these are as mentioned 

below: 

Charlie’s Angels (American/ ) → Cinlerle Periler (2001) 

Who's the Boss? (American/ ) → Patron Kim? (2003) 



26 

 

 

 

Yes Minister (British/ ) → Sayın Bakanım (2004) 

Sex and the City (American/ ) → Metro Palas (2004) 

Hinter Gittern – Der Frauenknast (German/ ) → Parmaklıklar Ardında (2007) 

Dawson's Creek (German/ ) → Kavak Yelleri (2007) 

The Succesfull Mr. and Mrs. Pells (Argentine/ ) → Mükemmel Çift (2010) 

Gossip Girl (American/ ) → Küçük Sırlar (2010) 

Desperate Housewives (American/ ) → Umutsuz Ev Kadınları (2011) 

Los Protegidos (Spanish/ ) → Sana Bir Sır Vereceğim (2013) 

Boys over Flowers (Korean/ ) → Güneşi Beklerken (2013) 

The O.C. (American/ ) → Medcezir (2013) 

Forbrydelsen (Danish/ ) → Cinayet (2014) 

L'Onore e il Rispetto (Italian/ ) → Şeref Meselesi (2014) 

Leverage (American/ ) → Ulan İstanbul (2014) 

Jane The Virgin (American/ ) → Hayat Mucizelere Gebe (2015) 

Can Love Become Money (Korean/ ) → Kiralık Aşk (2015) 

The Mother (Japanese/ ) → Anne (2016) 

Get Karl Oh Soo Joong (Korean/ ) → Tatlı İntikam (2016) 

Wentworth (Australian/ ) → Avlu (2017) 

Shining Inheriance (Korean/ ) → Elimi Bırakma (2018) 

House M.D. (American/ ) → Hekimoğlu (2019) 

Ellas son La Alegria Del Hogar (Mexican/ ) → Hizmetçiler (2020) 

 
 

Okyayuz (2016, p.228), underlines that the first examples of remakes were 

sitcoms and presents the following table as examples : 

Table 5: Okyayuz’s (2016, p.228) examples of remade American sitcom series in Turkey 

Amerikan dizisi Yeniden çevrimi 

The Nanny 1993 - 1999 Dadı 2001 – 2002 – 61 Bölüm 

Married with Children 1987 - 1997 Evli ve Çocuklu 2004 – 6 Bölüm 

Who’s the Boss 1984 - 1992 Patron Kim 2010 – 28 Bölüm 

Three’s Company 1977 - 1984 Çat Kapı 2005 – 39 Bölüm 

Ugly Betty 2006 - 2010 Sensiz Olmuyor 2005 – 29 Bölüm 

According to Jim 2001 - 2008 Cuma’ya Kalsa 2010 – 12 Bölüm 

The Golden Girls 1985 - 1992 Altın Kızlar 2009 – 4 Bölüm 

Dharma and Greg 1997 - 2002 Aslı ile Kerem 2002 – 29 Bölüm 

The Jeffersons 1975 - 1985 Tatlı Hayat 2001 – 2004 – 106 Bölüm 



27 

 

 

 

Hope and Faith 2003 - 2006 Belalı Baldız 2005 – 34 Bölüm 

All remakes, broadcasted on television, are subject to the supervision of the 

Radio and Television Supreme Council (RTÜK). Thus it is important to get to 

know RTÜK and examine its operation in order to understand the legal practices 

in supervision and to understand both socio-cultural and institutional norms 

better. 

1.2.4. Radio and Television Supreme Council (RTÜK) In Turkey 

Until the 1990s, radio and TV broadcasting in Turkey was a state monopoly. After 

the dissolution of the monopoly, many local broadcasting organizations started to 

broadcast. Due to the increase in broadcasters and the reshaping of the market, 

a new law was needed to regulate radio and TV broadcasting. Radio and 

Television Supreme Council (RTÜK) is established with Law No. 3984 on the 

Establishment and Broadcasting of Radio and Television, dated 20 April 1994. 

Although the Law Numbered 3984 has been repeatedly amended over time, it 

remained in force until 2011. Law No. 3984 was repealed by Law No. 6112 in 

2011, on the grounds that many articles presented in this earlier law were 

amended to the extent that the of the content integrity being destroyed, and new 

concepts emerged in broadcasting due to technological developments. According 

to Law No. 6112, RTÜK is established to regulate and supervise the radio, 

television and on-demand broadcasting services sector. It is also stated in the 

law that RTÜK is an impartial public legal entity with administrative and financial 

autonomy. Accordingly, RTÜK has nine members. The members of the Supreme 

Council are elected for a six-year term, and one-third of these members are re-

elected every two years. These members vote to decide the president of the 

council among themselves. The vice president is also elected in the same 

session. The terms of office of the president and vice president are two years. 

According to Law No. 6112, RTÜK members must meet at least once a week. At 

least five members must be present in order to convene a meeting decisions 

require a majority vote. Abstention is not allowed and confidentiality is essential 

at meetings. 



28 

 

 

 

Contents in broadcasting are controlled through three supervisions. These are; 

1. direct supervision by RTÜK experts in terms of compliance with Law No. 6112, 
international agreements acceded, such as the European Cross-Border 
Television Convention, and relevant regulations 

2. audience supervision is done by evaluating audience complaints from RTÜK 
Communication Center, Supreme Council Corporate Website, and e-mail 
channels. 

3. self-regulation of broadcasting organizations taking into account the ethical 
principles of broadcasting and the institution of audience representation. (RTÜK, 
2019) 

 
 

Regarding media service providers and platform operators offering broadcasting 

services on the internet, RTÜK was given the authority to carry out broadcasting 

license and transmission authorization operations in 2018.  

  



29 

 

 

 

CHAPTER 2: HUMOR STUDIES 
 
 

2.1. THE CONCEPT OF HUMOR 

For centuries the concept of humor has attracted the attention of many prominent 

thinkers such as Aristotle, Kant, Bergson, and Freud. Due to its complex and 

multi-disciplinary nature, various disciplines such as psychology, philosophy, 

linguistics, and sociology have tried to define, examine and discuss humor 

(Erguvan, 2015). However, currently there is no universal definition that all 

researchers agree (Berger, 1993, p. 2).  

The phenomenon of humor was initially associated with laughter, and was mainly 

based only on what is funny, with the logic that funniness makes people laugh. 

However, it would be wrong to associate humor only with fun and laughter. 

Erguvan (2015) summarizes this view as follows: 

Humor is in relation to a good many aspects of the human. On one hand, it is 
connected “with primitive parts of the brain”: “parts associated with socialization”, 
“(shared) emotions” and “(reduction of) danger or hostility”. On the other hand, 
humor is not merely laughter. It is laughter which has been reflected as a 
response to various insights of our mind such as surprise (p.11) 
 

 
Therefore, humor can simply be accepted as a response to the uncertainty and 

surprises created by the symbolic mind and involves all the factors that cause a 

spontaneous smile, laughter, surprise, and even excitement as well as fun 

(Vandaele, 2010, pp. 147 -148). 

Although it is assumed to be a universal human activity, a sense of humor is a 

social phenomenon because we socialize in the society we live in and develop 

emotions depending on the social norms of that particular society. Hence, 

societies may make different interpretations of jokes and about what is funny. In 

addition, humor cannot be regarded as a phenomenon independent of culture 

because there might be a need to refer to certain traditions, special places, works, 

people and events in order to create a humorous effect (Jabbari & Ravizi, 2012). 

On the other hand, Alharthi (2016, pp. 27-28) states that humor also 



30 

 

 

 

targetsinteresting and controversial issues such as marriage, religion, politics, 

gender and stereotypes. 

2.2. HUMOR THEORIES 

Due to the complex nature of humor, various theories have been put forward 

regarding this concept. Although humor was initially associated with laughter, it 

is obvious that laughter is not a constant when something is funny. Smiling, 

grinning and even exhaling also may occur due to humor (Çakıroğlu, 2019, p.25). 

Thus, theories of humor are based on the question of why people laugh or when 

they react in a certain manner. However, humor is possible with the transmission 

of a message to the person and the interaction of the adressee, that is, with 

communication, which is the most key element in its emergence. Therefore, 

theories of humor are closely related to psychological, physiological and mental 

functions. Contemporary theorists state that it is impossible to explain such a 

complex and multidisciplinary humor phenomenon with a single theory 

(Krikmann, 2006). Many theories have been put forward about humor one of them 

providing a universally accepted alternative as of yet . The ways in which humor 

emerges in the human mind, explained by Berger (1993) and Raskin (1985) in 

the literature of the field, form the basis of three prominent humor theories. These 

theories are generally discussed as incongruity, superiority and release theories. 

2.2.1. Theory of Incongruity 

The word ‘incongruity’ is defined as “disagreement in character or qualities; want 

of accordance or harmony; discrepancy, inconsistency ... want of accordance 

with what is reasonable or fitting; unsuitableness, inappropriateness, absurdity ... 

want of harmony of parts or elements; want of self-consistency; incoherence” by 

the Oxford English Dictionary (as cited in Alharthi, 2016, p.9). This is based on 

the assumption that the act of laughing occurs due to the existence of two 

situations or objects at least and an unexpected situation or the emergence of an 

unexpected object that do not fit together. Schopenhauer states that laughter 

arises from the sudden perception of the incompatibility between the concept and 

the real object, which is assumed to be related, and that it is actually an 



31 

 

 

 

expression of this inappropriateness (Binici, 2021, p. 63). In other words, the 

theory is essentially based on contradiction and conflict. Similarly, social 

psychologists Chapman and Foot, , reinforce this argument by stating that 

incongruity is “a conflict between what is expected and what actually occurs in 

the joke” (as cited in Vandaele, 1999, p. 239). 

However, it is also significant to note that incongruity theory tends to focus on the 

cognitive rather than social aspects of humor (Vandaele, 2010, p.148). Vandaele 

(2010) emphasizes that this incongruity occurs when cognitive rules are not 

followed. Therefore, incongruity theory can be characterized by the unexpected 

conclusion of a situation and the surprise it creates (Sağlam, 2013, p. 104). Thus, 

the underlying element of incongruity theory is to be surprised. People laugh at 

things they find surprising, unexpected, or strange according to incongruity theory 

(Berger, 1976; Deckers & Devine, 1981; McGhee & Pistolesi, 1979). We 

cognitively decide if something is surprising, unexpected, or strange and social 

norms (i.e. what is normal and what is not) are also quite effective in this decision. 

2.2.2. Theory of Superiority 

Many theorists such as Plato, Aristotle, Qinillian, and Hobbes have examined and 

discussed the theory of superiority. The theory of superiority, dating from ancient 

Greece to the present, is simply based on the understanding that one sees 

oneself as superior to the person or object that is the subject of laughter. 

Cheetham (2003) asserts that Hobbes has made the clearest definition regarding 

superiority theory stating that laughter actually implies “a sudden glory arising 

from some conception of some eminency in ourselves, by comparison with the 

infirmity of others, or with our own formerly” (as cited in Cheetham, p.66). 

Accordingly, this theory reinforces the claim that people laugh because they feel 

superior to others (Critchley, 2002, p. 3). People primarily sense joy due to the 

feeling of superiority, which is then followed by laughter that reveals the message 

of superiority. Therefore, the basis of the theory of superiority, which considers 

people and events as mockery, is the view that the main factor that arouses the 

sense of humor and laughter in people is to humiliate others (Billig, 2005: 39). It 

is also believed that humorous elements in terms of the superiority theory are 



32 

 

 

 

generally directed against various groups and individuals, often for political, 

ethnic, or gender-related reasons (Krikmann, 2006). These may derive from the 

prejudices of the society in general and certain stereotypes within a culture. 

2.2.3. Theory of Release 

The third of the most prominent humor theory is the theory of release. Release 

theory was introduced by Herbert Spencer in the 19th century. Cheetham (2003) 

briefly summarizes Spencer's work as follows: 

The release of tension model in its strong form, derives largely from the work of 
Herbert Spencer in his On the Physiology of Laughter. In this essay he argues 
that such emotions as fear or anger cause an increase in nervous energy which 
is released in the movements of flight or aggression. Laughter, he argues, is 
different from the physical reactions to negative feelings in that it is energy 
release without a practical purpose. That is to say, fear or anger produce energy 
which is used for flight or aggression, but laughter is simply release of energy, 
and is not used for anything else (p.71). 
 
 

As the theory suggests, laughter it is the pleasure arising from the release of 

restlessness or tension that has accumulated in the human body due to an event 

or situation. One of the reasons why people feel restless and nervous is that some 

emotions and behaviors are suppressed or prohibited. The biggest factor is social 

and socio-cultural norms. Erguvan (2015) makes the following statements 

regarding Freud’s work, one of the pioneers of the release of tension theory: 

Especially with Freud’s works, humor is considered as an escape from all the 
restrictions of the society. According to this theory, laughter is an expression of 
relief, which has been thought to be come after various tensions. Principally, the 
aim of laughter is to release energy, which is no longer needed (p.13). 
 
 

Kamiloğlu (2014) explains the release theory and discusses it by giving the 

following two examples from Turkish society: 

The prohibitions imposed on certain concepts in societies have been such as to 
cause laughter. Therefore, this pleasing laughter provided relief. For example, 
slang and profanity, which are widely accepted in Turkish society and 
prohibited/not welcomed by the religion of Islam or legal norms, have been used 
extensively in Turkish cinema, especially in Kemal Sunal films. During the times 
in the absence of the operation of RTÜK, the use of slang in these films without 
censorship caused the audience to laugh out loud. Still, talking and experiencing 



33 

 

 

 

sexuality in the Turkish society is prohibited both in terms of public order and in 
terms of religion. One of the stand-up artists of today, Cem Yılmaz's dialogues 
and analyzes on sexuality, which covers most of his shows, have made him 
people's favourite. (pp. 14-15). 
 

As can be understood from the passage given above, sexuality is an example of 

a taboo in Turkish society, as in many societies. For this reason, sexually 

humorous elements and their translations may also be considered under the 

release theory. 

Taking into account that the humor theories are numerous, Attardo (1994) 

classifies them under three main titles; cognitive, social, psychoanalytical. 

Table 6: The Three Families of Humor Theories according to Attardo (1994, p.47) 

Cognitive Social Psychoanalytical 

Incongruity Hostility Release 

Contrast Aggression Sublimation 

 Superiority Liberation 

 Triumph Economy 

 Derision  

 Disparagement  

 

Attardo’s (1994) chart clearly puts forth various terms used for these three main 

theories. 

2.2.4. Linguistic Theories of Humor 

From a linguistic point of view, it can be said that humor is still a newly developing 

field of study. “Semantic Script-based Theory of Humor” (hereinafter referred to 

as SSTH) put forward by Victor Raskin in his work titled “Semantic Mechanisms 

of Humor” published in 1985 is accepted as the first linguistically oriented humor 

theory (Karavin, 2015, p. 38). 

 

2.2.4.1. The Semantic Script-based Theory of Humor 

Raskin’s Semantic Script-based Theory of Humor is based on the representation 

of the information of a particular word on visuals and in the human mind. The 



34 

 

 

 

SSTH, requires several conditions for a text to be considered funny. According to 

Ruch, Attardo and Raskin (1993), these are: 

a. Each joke must contain two overlapping scripts (that is, the joke must be 
interpretable, fully or in part, according to two different scripts); 
 

b. The two scripts must be opposed (that is, they must be the negation of each 
other, if only for the purpose of a given text), according to a list of basic 
oppositions, such as real/unreal, possible/impossible, etc. (p.124) 

 

It can be said that by script, Raskin (1985, p.81) refers to a collection of semantic 

information about a word that the word conjures up in our minds. This theory was 

later expanded by Attardo and Raskin (1991) when they developed the "General 

Theory of Verbal Humor" (hereinafter referred to as GTVH). 

 

2.2.4.2. The General Theory of Verbal Humor 

According to the Semantic Script-based Theory of Humor, the General Theory of 

Verbal Humor is a more linguistic theory of humor. In other words, this theory also 

covers other branches of linguistics such as textlinguistics and pragmatics 

(Attado, 2001). Another feature of this theory is that it can only be applied to a 

humorous text. According to this theory, each type of joke and humor is examined 

within the scope of six parameters known as knowledge resources (KR). Attardo 

(2002) explains these parameters as follows: 

Language: This Knowledge Resource contains all the information necessary for 
the verbalization of a text. It is responsible for the actual wording of the text and 
for the placement of the functional elements that constitute it. 

Narrative Strategy: The information in the Narrative Strategy Knowledge 
Resource accounts for the fact that any joke has to be cast in some form of 
narrative organization, either as a simple narrative, as a dialogue (question and 
answer), as a(pseudo)riddle, as an aside in conversation, etc. 

Target: The Target parameter selects who is the ‘butt’ of the joke. The information 
in this Knowledge Resource contains the names of groups or individuals with 
(humorous) stereotypes attached to each. Jokes that are not aggressive (i.e., that 
do not ridicule someone or something) have an empty value for this parameter. 
Alternatively, one can think of this as an optional parameter. 



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Situation: Any joke must be ‘about something’ (changing a light bulb, crossing the 
road, playing golf, etc.). The situation of a joke can be thought of as the props of 
the joke: the objects, participants, instruments, activities, etc. 

Logical Mechanism: The Logical Mechanism embodies the resolution of the 
incongruity in the incongruity-resolution model, familiar from psychology. A 
consequence of this claim is that, since resolution is optional in humor (as in 
nonsense and absurd humor) it follows that the Logical Mechanism Knowledge 
Resource would also be optional. 

Script Opposition: This parameter deals with the script opposition/overlapping 
requirement presented in Raskin’s Semantic Script Theory of Humor (pp.176-
181). 

According to the theory, the similarity between the jokes increases when there is 

more of an overlap across the above mentioned information sources. Therefore, 

the General Theory of Verbal Humor helps the translator to evaluate how much 

humor has changed in the process of transferring humorous elements to the 

target from the source text. 

Verbal humor elements are the focal point of this thesis rather than visual humor 

elements. Nevertheless, an audio-visual product and its remake are the object of 

the study, and these are composed of two tracks (the visual and verbal). 

Furthermore, there will be cases where the humor elements and some verbal 

humor elements gain meaning in the context of the visual track. So as not to 

ignore any instances and to provide an in-depth analysis and the original product 

and its remake will be analyzed by considering both the verbal and the visual 

elements. 

 

2.2.5. Sex-Related Humor as Taboo 

Sex related content is considered taboo in many societies. Since taboo is 

associated with many different branches of science such as sociology and 

linguistics, it is very hard to define simplistically. Nevertheless, generally today, 

the concept of taboo, supported mainly by religious and moral restrictions, is 

briefly described as social and cultural prohibitions. There may be universal 

taboos or taboos may be specific to a certain society. 



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Hicran Karataş (2018) states that taboos originate from religion and divides them 

into five: those related to nature, those related to the cult of ancestors, those 

related to state administration, those related to property, sexual life and gender 

(pp. 109-110). Stephen Ullmann, on the other hand, abides by the psychological 

impulse while classifying taboos. Accordingly, taboos, which are thought to be 

based on psychological impulses, can be examined under three headings related 

to fear, sadness and concepts considered shameful (Özdemir, 1996). Among the 

taboos about concepts that are considered shameful, are human organs, 

sexuality, some special conditions of women and terms related to convenience. 

In almost all cultures, in addition to death, certain diseases and mental disorders, 

words related to forbidden relationships, excretion and sexuality are considered 

taboo (Üstüner, 2009, p. 168). 

The word impudent in English is derived from the Latin pudere, and the word 

pudenda means “genital organs” (Sanders, 2001, p. 312). According to Sanders' 

(2001) explanation, it can be concluded that sexuality-related issues are 

“objectionable and shameful concepts" in many societies. For this reason, there 

is a tradition of banning taboos. As previously stated under the release theory, 

the characterization of the shamed and forbidden as "funny" is found in sexual 

humor. Öğüt-Eker (2009) stated that humor with a sexual content is the type of 

humor in which sexuality is used directly or indirectly, and it includes sexual 

elements explicitly or indirectly (p. 122). 

On the other hand, every society has a different sense of humor. For this reason, 

translators should consider if humorous elements related to sexuality will be 

considered as entertaining and funny by the society when translated, represented 

or imaged and how this can be achieved. 

2.3. HUMOR AND TRANSLATION 

Although humor translation is seen in our daily lives and target audiences receive 

it with pleasure, it is an undeniable fact that the process of translation involved in 

relaying humor is difficult, complex, and requires creative thinking. While humor 

may be presented in a cultural and social context, it also includes the transfer of 



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wordplay between different languages and cultures. Since humor and culture are 

two intertwined, equivalence is important. While equivalence is generally 

controversial in translation theory per se, Dynamic Equivalence, which is 

introduced by Nida (1977) in his Toward a Science of Translating: on Bible 

Translation, examines the connection between humor and translation. According 

to Eugene Nida (1977), dynamic equivalence is explained as: 

"...quality of a translation in which the message of the original text has been so 
transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptor is 
essentially like that of the original receptors." 
 
 

According to Nida's (1977) definition, the target translation should have the same 

impact on the reader as the original. Gürçağlar (2011) also states “the translator 

is expected to maintain the same relationship established between the source 

message and the source receiver between the target message and the target 

receiver” (p. 118). This transfer between the source and the target is on a 

functional rather than lexical level. Thus, the translator takes into account the 

intralingual and extralingual factors. 

A literature review reveals that the translatability of humor is a much-debated 

issue. On the other hand, in practice, it is obvious that humor can be translated 

in various ways regardless of product being written or audio-visual. Yakın (1999) 

does not consider the translation of humor impossible, but states that the process 

of creating an original text from another original text is futile and advocates that 

the important point is to build bridges between different cultures. He adds that the 

main purpose of humor translation is not finding an equivalence. 

When the equivalence is not met, translation shifts are inevitable in order to fill 

these gaps. There are many researchers working on translation shifts. Two of the 

pioneering theorists in this field, Vinay and Darbelnet (1995), studied translation 

shifts in "Stylistique comparée du français et de l'anglais". Molina and Albir 

(2002), in their most comprehensive study, discussed Nida's equivalence theory 

in their study titled "Translation Techniques Revisited: A Dynamic and 



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Functionalist Approach" and comparatively examined many translation shift 

theories in the field 

Therefore, this thesis benefits from their compilation and make use of some of 

the strategies mentioned in their work. 

 

2.3.1. Difficulties Encountered in Humor Translation 

Although remakes are examined within the scope of audio-visual translation, the 

visual, temporal, auditory, or spatial restrictions that exist in subtitling and dubbing 

are not in present in remakes. Remakes involve the reproduction of a movie or 

series from scratch. Therefore, this section will focus on the difficulties 

encountered in humor translation in general, not specifically on humor translation 

in audio-visual products. 

According to Díaz Cintas and Remael (2007, p. 214), the first difficulty in humor 

translation is to identify the humorous elements in the source text, which is then 

followed by their transfer to the target text in a way that reflects the same effect. 

Therefore, the translator must have comprehensive knowledge of the source 

culture and language in order to identify the humorous elements in the source, 

and the target culture and language. 

Many problems are encountered in humor translation, but the two most important 

factors are linguistic and cultural differences between societies. Raphaelson-

West (1989) divides humor into three categories: linguistic, cultural, and 

universal. According to Zabalbeascoa (2005), universal humor “offers very little 

or no resistance to translation, in a sense they are unrestricted” (p.189). 

Based on Raphaelson-West's (1989) classification, Zabalbeascoa (2005, pp. 

189-196) refers to what a translator should pay attention to in the process of 

transferring humor, focusing mainly on cultural and linguistic differences in his 

"Humor and translation-an interdiscipline”. He explains several factors. The first 

of these factors is restriction by audience profile traits where the translator 



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must take into account “the text users’ linguistic or encyclopedic knowledge, or 

their degree of familiarity or appreciation for certain subject-matters, th