Hacettepe University Graduate School of Social Sciences Department of Translation and Interpreting A TAXONOMY FOR CREATIVE SUBTITLING FOR THE DEAF AND HARD OF HEARING Gevher Ebru ÇEVİKOĞLU YILDIRIM Ph.D. Thesis Ankara, 2025 A TAXONOMY FOR CREATIVE SUBTITLING FOR THE DEAF AND HARD OF HEARING Gevher Ebru ÇEVİKOĞLU YILDIRIM Hacettepe University Graduate School of Social Sciences Department of Translation and Interpreting Ph.D. Thesis Ankara, 2025 ACCEPTANCE AND APPROVAL The jury finds that Gevher Ebru ÇEVİKOĞLU YILDIRIM has on the date of 16.01.2025 successfully passed the defense examination and approves his/her Ph.D. Thesis titled “A Taxonomy for Creative Subtitling for the Deaf and Hard of Hearing” Prof. Dr. Nüzhet Berrin AKSOY (Jury President) Prof. Dr. Ayşe Şirin OKYAYUZ (Main Adviser) Prof. Dr. Aslı Özlem TARAKCIOĞLU Doç. Dr. Hilal ERKAZANCI DURMUŞ Doç. Dr. Sinem BOZKURT I agree that the signatures above belong to the faculty members listed. Prof.Dr.Uğur ÖMÜRGÖNÜLŞEN Graduate School Director YAYIMLAMA VE FİKRİ MÜLKİYET HAKLARI BEYANI Enstitü tarafından onaylanan lisansüstü tezimin/raporumun tamamını veya herhangi bir kısmını, basılı (kağıt) ve elektronik formatta arşivleme ve aşağıda verilen koşullarla kullanıma açma iznini Hacettepe Üniversitesine verdiğimi bildiririm. Bu izinle Üniversiteye verilen kullanım hakları dışındaki tüm fikri mülkiyet haklarım bende kalacak, tezimin tamamının ya da bir bölümünün gelecekteki çalışmalarda (makale, kitap, lisans ve patent vb.) kullanım hakları bana ait olacaktır. Tezin kendi orijinal çalışmam olduğunu, başkalarının haklarını ihlal etmediğimi ve tezimin tek yetkili sahibi olduğumu beyan ve taahhüt ederim. Tezimde yer alan telif hakkı bulunan ve sahiplerinden yazılı izin alınarak kullanılması zorunlu metinlerin yazılı izin alınarak kullandığımı ve istenildiğinde suretlerini Üniversiteye teslim etmeyi taahhüt ederim. Yükseköğretim Kurulu tarafından yayınlanan “Lisansüstü Tezlerin Elektronik Ortamda Toplanması, Düzenlenmesi ve Erişime Açılmasına İlişkin Yönerge” kapsamında tezim aşağıda belirtilen koşullar haricince YÖK Ulusal Tez Merkezi / H.Ü. Kütüphaneleri Açık Erişim Sisteminde erişime açılır. o Enstitü / Fakülte yönetim kurulu kararı ile tezimin erişime açılması mezuniyet tarihimden itibaren 2 yıl ertelenmiştir. (1) o Enstitü / Fakülte yönetim kurulunun gerekçeli kararı ile tezimin erişime açılması mezuniyet tarihimden itibaren ... ay ertelenmiştir. (2) o Tezimle ilgili gizlilik kararı verilmiştir. (3) ……/………/…… [İmza] Gevher Ebru ÇEVİKOĞLU YILDIRIM “Lisansüstü Tezlerin Elektronik Ortamda Toplanması, Düzenlenmesi ve Erişime Açılmasına İlişkin Yönerge” (1) Madde 6. 1. Lisansüstü tezle ilgili patent başvurusu yapılması veya patent alma sürecinin devam etmesi durumunda, tez danışmanının önerisi ve enstitü anabilim dalının uygun görüşü üzerine enstitü veya fakülte yönetim kurulu iki yıl süre ile tezin erişime açılmasının ertelenmesine karar verebilir. (2) Madde 6. 2. Yeni teknik, materyal ve metotların kullanıldığı, henüz makaleye dönüşmemiş veya patent gibi yöntemlerle korunmamış ve internetten paylaşılması durumunda 3. şahıslara veya kurumlara haksız kazanç imkanı oluşturabilecek bilgi ve bulguları içeren tezler hakkında tez danışmanının önerisi ve enstitü anabilim dalının uygun görüşü üzerine enstitü veya fakülte yönetim kurulunun gerekçeli kararı ile altı ayı aşmamak üzere tezin erişime açılması engellenebilir. (3) Madde 7. 1. Ulusal çıkarları veya güvenliği ilgilendiren, emniyet, istihbarat, savunma ve güvenlik, sağlık vb. konulara ilişkin lisansüstü tezlerle ilgili gizlilik kararı, tezin yapıldığı kurum tarafından verilir *. Kurum ve kuruluşlarla yapılan işbirliği protokolü çerçevesinde hazırlanan lisansüstü tezlere ilişkin gizlilik kararı ise, ilgili kurum ve kuruluşun önerisi ile enstitü veya fakültenin uygun görüşü üzerine üniversite yönetim kurulu tarafından verilir. Gizlilik kararı verilen tezler Yükseköğretim Kuruluna bildirilir. Madde 7.2. Gizlilik kararı verilen tezler gizlilik süresince enstitü veya fakülte tarafından gizlilik kuralları çerçevesinde muhafaza edilir, gizlilik kararının kaldırılması halinde Tez Otomasyon Sistemine yüklenir * Tez danışmanının önerisi ve enstitü anabilim dalının uygun görüşü üzerine enstitü veya fakülte yönetim kurulu tarafından karar verilir. ETİK BEYAN Bu çalışmadaki bütün bilgi ve belgeleri akademik kurallar çerçevesinde elde ettiğimi, görsel, işitsel ve yazılı tüm bilgi ve sonuçları bilimsel ahlak kurallarına uygun olarak sunduğumu, kullandığım verilerde herhangi bir tahrifat yapmadığımı, yararlandığım kaynaklara bilimsel normlara uygun olarak atıfta bulunduğumu, tezimin kaynak gösterilen durumlar dışında özgün olduğunu, Prof. Dr. Ayşe Şirin OKYAYUZ danışmanlığında tarafımdan üretildiğini ve Hacettepe Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Tez Yazım Yönergesine göre yazıldığını beyan ederim. [İmza] Gevher Ebru ÇEVİKOĞLU YILDIRIM iv To all silent stories woven in the quiet corners of life… v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Writing this thesis was one of the most challenging tasks of my life. For her generous support throughout my journey, first and foremost, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my advisor Prof. Dr. Ayşe Şirin OKYAYUZ. Without her valuable contributions, guidance, and incredible patience, this PhD would never have finished. She was always there irrespective of time or place. People like her are rare to find in academia. She was, is, and will always be my north star. Also, I would like to express my gratitude to my committee members, Prof. Dr. Nüzhet Berrin AKSOY and Assoc. Prof. Sinem BOZKURT. Thank you for your encouragement, guidance, and trust in my research. I am very grateful to my twin spirit creative director İlkin ESKİPEHLİVAN for his enormous support in producing the corpus of my research. I enjoyed every moment of brainstorming with him. I can never deny his generous support no matter the distance between us. I hope life brings you everything you dream about. Also, I am very grateful to Berrak Fetahna FIRAT as she removed all language barriers throughout the research. In her absence, this dream would never come true. You are my heroin. I owe special thanks to my husband. I spent the first two years of marriage in front of my computer, and he has always been my source of solidarity. Even during the darkest moments, he lifted me mentally. Now it is time to have fun. I am also grateful to my parents for their lifelong faith in me. You always bring joy and happiness to my life. Without you, I would never be who I am. Last but not least, I am thankful to all my friends, who are family to me. Finally, I would like to congratulate myself. Good job Gevher, finally you could close the long-lasting PhD tab in your brain. vi ABSTRACT ÇEVİKOĞLU YILDIRIM, Gevher Ebru. A Taxonomy for Creative Subtitling for the Deaf and Hard of Hearing. Ph.D. Thesis, Ankara, 2025. This study aims to evaluate the reception of creative subtitling for persons who are Deaf and hard of hearing (SDH) in Türkiye. This pioneering effort to introduce the creative venue of this audiovisual translation (AVT) mode in Türkiye, takes SDH practices one step further by incorporating dynamic text styles, visualization of sound effects, different positioning of text on screen, and addition of extra visual layers to increase the accessibility of the end-users with audiovisual products. In this regard, the research aims not only to produce and present creative examples but also to create a taxonomy for creative subtitling for the deaf and hard of hearing that would be a reference for future research in the field. With this aim, the research investigates how participants selected from the deaf and hard of hearing community in Türkiye, encountering the creative venue for the first time, perceive and interact with this new AVT mode. Positioning creative SDH within the broader context of media accessibility, this study aims to understand its potential contributions to both Turkish and global discourse on accessible media by balancing creativity with functionality to meet the realities, needs and expectations of the end-users. The study also posits the notion of an ‘average end- user’ as an implied audience thus streamlining the limits of creativity to coincide with end-user- friendly and desired products. This study makes a classification of an initial identification that was made between what was referred to as a linguistic information track and a sound-related information track. Breaking down the informative load of the categories under different headings namely as subtitle formats and placement, overlapping speech, speech tempo, multilingualism, idiolect, origin of sound, and sound effects the study thus identifies and outlines a taxonomy that may be of future use to researchers and practitioners alike on aspects to improve accessibility for DHH through creative SDH. Keywords Accessibility, audiovisual translation, creative subtitling for persons who are deaf and hard of hearing, media accessibility, translation studies. vii ÖZET ÇEVİKOĞLU YILDIRIM, Gevher Ebru. Yaratıcı Ayrıntılı Altyazı Çevirisi İçin Bir Taksonomi, Doktora Tezi, Ankara, 2025. Bu çalışma, Türkiye’de sağır ve işitme engelli bireyler için yaratıcı ayrıntılı altyazı çevirisinin alımlama düzeyini ölçmeyi amaçlamaktadır. Görsel-işitsel çeviri alanında bu yeni açılımın ülkemizde tanıtılması yönünde bu öncü çalışma ile hareketli metinler, görsel düzgüye taşınmış ses efektleri, ekranda farklı konumlandırılan metinler ve ilave görsel katmanların eklenmesi ile ayrıntılı altyazı uygulamalarının bir adım öteye taşınması ve bu sayede hedef kitlenin görsel-işitsel ürünlere erişiminin arttırılması amaçlanmaktadır. Bu bağlamda araştırmanın amacı yalnızca yaratıcı altyazı örnekleri üretmek ve sunmak değil; önümüzdeki dönemde bu alanda gerçekleştirilecek araştırmalar için temel oluşturabilecek bir taksonomi ortaya koymaktır. Bu amaçla araştırma, Türkiye'de sağır ve işitme engelli toplumdan seçilen ve yaratıcılık açılımı ile ilk kez karşılaşan katılımcıların bu yeni görsel-işitsel çeviri türünü nasıl alımladıklarını ve bu yeni tür ile nasıl bir etkileşime girdiklerini incelemektedir. Yaratıcı ayrıntılı altyazı çevirisini medya erişilebilirliği bağlamı içerisinde ele alan bu araştırma, işlevsellik ile yaratıcılık arasında bir denge kurarak son kullanıcıların gerçekliklerini, ihtiyaçlarını ve beklentilerini karşılamak amacıyla hem ülkemizde hem de küresel bağlamda erişilebilir medya söylemine katkı sunmayı amaçlamaktadır. Bu araştırmada ‘ortalama son kullanıcı’ kavramı ‘zımni izleyici’ olarak ele alınarak yaratıcılığın sınırları kullanıcı dostu bir hale getirilmiş ve beklentilerle örtüşecek şekilde daraltılmıştır. Bu çalışmada daha önceden yapılan dilsel işitsel bilgi ve sessel işitsel bilgi ayrımı üzerinden yeni bir sınıflandırma yapılmış ve bu kapsamda işitsel bilgi yükü; altyazıların farklı biçimlendirilmesi ve konumlandırılması, çakışan diyaloglar, konuşma hızı, çokdillilik, bireydil kullanımı, sesin kaynağı ve ses efektlerinin aktarılması gibi farklı başlıklar altında kategorilendirilmiştir. Oluşturulan bu şablonun, yaratıcı ayrıntılı altyazı çevirisi aracılığı ile sağır ve işitme engelli bireylerin erişilebilirliğini arttırmaya yönelik araştırmalar ve uygulayıcılara rehber olabilmesi amaçlanmaktadır. Anahtar Sözcükler Erişilebilirlik, görsel-işitsel çeviri, yaratıcı ayrıntılı altyazı çevirisi, engelsiz erişim, çeviribilim viii TABLE OF CONTENTS ACCEPTANCE AND APPROVAL……………………………………………….…İ YAYIMLAMA VE FİKRİ MÜLKİYET HAKLARI BEYANI……………………….İİ ETİK BEYAN………………………………………………………………………...İİİ DEDICATION………………………………………………………………………..İV ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS………………………………………...………………..V ABSTRACT………………………………………………………………………….Vİ ÖZET………………………………………………………………………….……..Vİİ TABLE OF CONTENTS………………………………………………………….Vİİİ ABBREVIATIONS……………………………………………………………….….X LIST OF FIGURES………………………………………………………………….Xİ INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………………………….1 CHAPTER 1 : THE EMERGENCE OF AUDIOVISUAL TRANSLATION AND SUBTITLING………………………………………………..………………………11 1.1. THE ADVENT OF SOUND………………………………………………..12 1.2. SUBTITLING……………………………………………………………….21 1.2.1. LINGUISTIC CATEGORIZATION……………………………………..25 1.2.2. TECHNICAL CATEGORIZATION……………………………………..28 CHAPTER 2 : THE MEDIA ACCESSIBILITY AND EMERGENCE OF NEW ACCESSIBLE AVT MODES………………………………………………………32 2.1. MEDIA ACCESSIBILITY EFFORTS IN THE WORLD…….………….33 2.2. ACCESSIBILITY EFFORTS IN TÜRKİYE……………………..……….37 2.3. ACCESSIBLE TRANSLATION MODES………………………..………43 2.3.1. LIVE SUBTITLING……………………………………………………………43 2.3.2. SUBTITLING FOR PERSONS WHO ARE DEAF AND HARD OF HEARING……………………………………………………………………..………46 2.3.3. CREATIVE SUBTITLING FOR PERSONS WHO ARE DEAF AND HARD OF HEARING…………………………………………………………………………52 CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY…………………………………..59 ix 3.1. DESIGNING THE CORPUS………………………………………………60 3.2. DESIGNING THE SURVEY……………………………………………….63 3.3. PARTICIPANT RECRUITMENT………………………………………….67 3.4. DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PARTICIPANTS …………………………………………………………………72 CHAPTER 4: THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK………………………………….88 CHAPTER 5 : CORPUS……………………………………………………………97 5.1. CORPUS SELECTION…………………………………………………….98 5.2. SELECTED CORPUS……………………………………………………102 5.2.1. 1899…………………………………………………………………………..102 5.2.2. ELYSIUM…………………………………………………………………….108 5.2.3. HOW I MET YOUR MOTHER……………………………………………...114 5.2.4. INSIDIOUS: CHAPTER 2…………………………………………………..119 5.2.5. DR. T & THE WOMEN………………………………………………………126 5.2.6. WHEN HARRY MET SALLY……………………………………………….131 5.2.7. LOOK WHO’S TALKING……………………………………………………138 5.2.8. INSIDIOUS…………………………………………………………………..143 CHAPTER 6 : DISCUSSIONS…………..………………………………………150 6.1. VIDEOS WHERE CREATIVE SDH WAS PREFERRED…………….153 6.2. EASE OF FOLLOWING THE CREATIVE SDH………………………155 6.3. ENJOYMENT AND INCREASE IN THE RECEPTION OF THE CREATIVE SDH ……………………………………………………………….156 6.4. KEY FINDINGS…………………………………………………………...157 6.5. DISCUSSION OF THE KEY FINDINGS……………………………….165 CONCLUSION…………………………………………………………………….167 BIBLIOGRAPHY………………………………………………………………….179 APPENDIX 1 SURVEY QUESTIONS…………………………………………..196 APPENDIX 2 INFORMED CONSENT FORM…………………………………210 APPENDIX 3 ORIGINALITY REPORT…………………………………………213 APPENDIX 4 ETHICS COMMISSION REPORT………………………………217 x ABBREVIATIONS AD Audio Description AV Audiovisual AVT Audiovisual Translation CODA Children of Deaf Adults DHH Deaf and Hard of Hearing EYHGM Directorate of Services for Persons with Disabilities and the Elderly FCC The Federal Communications Commission HIMYM How I Met Your Mother HoH Hard of Hearing NZSL New Zeland Sign Language Ofcom The Office of Communications RTÜK Radio and Television Supreme Council SDH Subtitling for the Deaf and hard of hearing SLI Sign Language Interpreting SR Speech Recognition UDHR The Universal Declaration of Human Rights UNCRPD UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities VOD Video-on-demand WHMS When Harry Met Sally xi LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1: A stylized intertitle from The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari (1920) .......................... 13 Figure 2. Five lead actors from the multilanguage version of the film The Big Trail (1930). Left to right: Gaston Glass (La Piste des géants), Theo Shall (Die Große Fahrt), John Wayne (The Big Trail), Franco Corsaro (Il Grande Sentiero) and Jorge Lewis (La Gran Jornada). .................................................................................................................... 14 Figure 3: Age Distribution of Participants .................................................................... 73 Figure 4: Educational Level of Participants ................................................................. 74 Figure 5: Available devices ......................................................................................... 75 Figure 6: Available streaming services ........................................................................ 75 Figure 7: Gender distribution of participants ................................................................ 76 Figure 8: Degree of hearing loss ................................................................................. 77 Figure 9: Visual impairment indicator .......................................................................... 77 Figure 10: Ease of following a Turkish text.................................................................. 78 Figure 11: Ease of following subtitles .......................................................................... 78 Figure 12: Awareness on SDH .................................................................................... 79 Figure 13: Sufficiency of SDH in Türkiye ..................................................................... 79 Figure 14: Preference in the absence of SDH ............................................................. 80 Figure 15: Information on programs with SDH ............................................................ 81 Figure 16: Sufficiency of SDH ..................................................................................... 81 Figure 17: Benefits of SDH ......................................................................................... 82 Figure 18: Time spent watching media ....................................................................... 83 Figure 19: Time spent watching media with SDH ........................................................ 83 Figure 20: Preference for different genres................................................................... 84 Figure 21: Tiredness following SDH ............................................................................ 85 Figure 22: Focal point while following SDH ................................................................. 85 Figure 23: Categorization of AV product ..................................................................... 88 Figure 24: Categorization of linguistic information ....................................................... 89 Figure 25: Style of linguistic information ...................................................................... 90 Figure 26: Style of linguistic information ...................................................................... 91 Figure 27: Placement of linguistic information ............................................................. 91 Figure 28: Categorization of sound-related information ............................................... 92 Figure 29: Mixed design .............................................................................................. 98 Figure 30: Example 1 (1899)..................................................................................... 103 Figure 31: Example 2 (1899)..................................................................................... 104 Figure 32: Example 3 (1899)..................................................................................... 104 Figure 33: Questionnaire (1899) ............................................................................... 105 Figure 34: Ease of following (1899) .......................................................................... 105 Figure 35: Enjoyment of the creative auditory signs (1899) ....................................... 106 Figure 36: Overall focus (1899) ................................................................................. 106 Figure 37: Overall enjoyment (1899) ......................................................................... 106 Figure 38: Transfer of emotions (1899) ..................................................................... 107 Figure 39: Overall preference (1899) ........................................................................ 107 Figure 40: Standard SDH (Elysium) .......................................................................... 110 Figure 41: Creative SDH (Elysium) ........................................................................... 110 Figure 42: Questionnaire (Elysium) ........................................................................... 111 Figure 43: Ease of following (Elysium) ...................................................................... 111 Figure 44: Reception of emotions (Elysium) .............................................................. 112 xii Figure 45: Reception of information (Elysium) .......................................................... 112 Figure 46: Overall enjoyment (Elysium) .................................................................... 112 Figure 47: Overall preference (Elysium) .................................................................... 113 Figure 48: Creative SDH (HIMYM) ............................................................................ 116 Figure 49: Questionnaire (HIMYM) ........................................................................... 116 Figure 50: Ease of following (HIMYM) ....................................................................... 117 Figure 51: Placement of text (HIMYM) ...................................................................... 117 Figure 52: Reception of emotions (HIMYM) .............................................................. 117 Figure 53: Overall enjoyment (HIMYM) ..................................................................... 118 Figure 54: Overall preference (HIMYM) .................................................................... 118 Figure 55: Creative SDH 1 (Insidious: Chapter 2) ..................................................... 121 Figure 56: Creative SDH 2 (Insidious: Chapter 2) ..................................................... 122 Figure 57: Questionnaire (Insidious: Chapter 2) ........................................................ 122 Figure 58: Ease of following (Insidious: Chapter 2) ................................................... 123 Figure 59: Enjoyment of formatting and positioning (Insidious: Chapter 2) ................ 123 Figure 60: Focus on visuals (Insidious: Chapter 2) ................................................... 123 Figure 61: Reception of information/emotions (Insidious: Chapter 2) ........................ 124 Figure 62: Overall enjoyment (Insidious: Chapter 2) ................................................. 124 Figure 63: Overall preference (Insidious: Chapter 2) ................................................. 124 Figure 64: Creative SDH 1 (Dr. T& the Women) ....................................................... 127 Figure 65: Creative SDH 2 (Dr. T& the Women) ....................................................... 127 Figure 66: Creative SDH 3 (Dr. T& the Women) ....................................................... 128 Figure 67: Questionnaire (Dr. T& the Women) .......................................................... 128 Figure 68: Reception of the message (Dr. T& the Women) ....................................... 129 Figure 69: Overall focus (Dr. T& the Women) ........................................................... 129 Figure 70: Transfer of information (Dr. T& the Women) ............................................ 129 Figure 71: Overall enjoyment (Dr. T& the Women) ................................................... 130 Figure 72: Overall preference (Dr. T& the Women) ................................................... 130 Figure 73: Creative SDH 1 (WHMS) ......................................................................... 133 Figure 74: Creative SDH 2 (WHMS) ......................................................................... 133 Figure 75: Questionnaire (WHMS) ............................................................................ 134 Figure 76: Reception of the message (WHMS) ......................................................... 134 Figure 77: Speaker identification (WHMS) ................................................................ 135 Figure 78: Focus on visuals (WHMS) ........................................................................ 135 Figure 79: Transfer of information/emotions (WHMS) ............................................... 135 Figure 80: Overall enjoyment (WHMS) ..................................................................... 136 Figure 81: Overall preference (WHMS) ..................................................................... 136 Figure 82: Creative SDH 1 (Look Who's Talking) ...................................................... 139 Figure 83: Creative SDH 2 (Look Who's Talking) ...................................................... 139 Figure 84: Questionnaire (Look Who's Talking) ........................................................ 140 Figure 85: Ease of following (Look Who's Talking) .................................................... 140 Figure 86: Enjoyment of inner voice (Look Who's Talking) ........................................ 141 Figure 87: Focus on visuals (Look Who's Talking) .................................................... 141 Figure 88: Transfer of information/emotions (Look Who's Talking) ............................ 141 Figure 89: Overall enjoyment (Look Who's Talking) .................................................. 142 Figure 90: Overall preference (Look Who's Talking) ................................................. 142 Figure 91: Creative SDH 1 (Insidious) ....................................................................... 144 Figure 92: Creative SDH 2 (Insidious) ....................................................................... 144 Figure 93: Creative SDH 3 (Insidious) ....................................................................... 145 Figure 94: Creative SDH 4 (Insidious) ....................................................................... 145 xiii Figure 95: Questionnaire (Insidious) ......................................................................... 146 Figure 96: Ease of following (Insidious) .................................................................... 146 Figure 97: Enjoyment of formatting (Insidious) .......................................................... 147 Figure 98: Focus on visual (Insidious) ....................................................................... 147 Figure 99: Transfer of information/emotions (Insidious) ............................................ 147 Figure 100: Overall enjoyment (Insidious) ................................................................. 148 Figure 101: Overall preference (Insidious) ................................................................ 148 Figure 102. A taxonomy for creative SDH ................................................................. 173 1 INTRODUCTION Creative subtitling for persons who are deaf and hard of hearing (creative SDH), a relatively recent field of research in audiovisual translation, is a derivative of subtitling for persons who are Deaf and Hard of Hearing (SDH). It represents an innovative approach to SDH practices. Combining SDH and creative subtitling practices and research, creative SDH takes the subtitling act for the deaf and hard of hearing, constrained by the space and time limitations on screen, a step further. It adds moving images using additional visual elements like color, motion, and typography to enhance the subtitle viewing experience for deaf and hard of hearing end-users (DHH). The roots of subtitling for persons who are deaf and hard of hearing can be traced back to the early days of television and film. Even fifty years after its initial introduction on television (Neves J. , 2019), subtitling and SDH primarily focus on converting spoken dialogue and significant sound effects into written text. However, the advancements in digital technology, the growing awareness of the needs of deaf audiences, and the advocation for the rights of the deaf population on a global scale have fostered a shift towards more inclusive and engaging approaches, ensuring that SDH is not merely a transcription tool but a means of enhancing accessibility and audiovisual enjoyment. The last few decades have witnessed global efforts to turn SDH into an emerging area of research. (Alejandra, 2024). Different countries have strived to disseminate subtitled audiovisual products for persons who are deaf and hard of hearing, and these efforts have resulted in significant political and social change. This global shift has brought about awareness among diverse stakeholders, and today, researchers, media service providers, and national media legislation bodies are working on different policies and applications to fill the gaps and overcome the lack of SDH. Creative subtitling is introduced at this juncture in search of a viable solution to challenging issues in SDH. 2 Creative SDH is not just a technical innovation. It is a shift towards a more interactive, inclusive, and immersive audiovisual media experience. With creative SDH, prosodic features, music, and diegetic and nondiegetic sound effects are presented to the audience innovatively to enhance their overall viewing experience. This new subtitling mode oversteps the bounds of words; in a way, it carries the needs of the end-users beyond linguistic limitations. As cited in (Robert È.-S. , 2022, p. 78), this new translation code could be defined as: [i]nterlingual or intralingual pre-prepared creative moving inserts used in audiovisual programmes to render non-verbal features, such as the emotion and/or intention with which dialogues are uttered, and sound effects that play a pivotal role in the animated story. They use pioneering techniques that merge different disciplines, such as graphic design, animation, video editing, subtitling and transcreation, to provide a visual equivalence to what is heard in the original (Robert, 2016). Technological changes have brought about significant shifts in the expectations and realities of the DHH community. These changes have paved the way for new ways to enhance the viewing experience, such as creative SDH, which is likely to come into prominence in the near future in many countries with long-standing traditions of SDH. This technological advancement offers a promising future for the field of SDH, providing new tools and methods to enhance accessibility and audiovisual enjoyment for all. Unsurprisingly, today’s widely used and recognized AVT modes have witnessed a similar shift. When first introduced, well-recognized professional practices of our era, dubbing, and subtitling, were deemed innovative solutions to remove language barriers and increase audience enjoyment (Rocío & Díaz-Cintas, 2018). Likewise, the innovations in the field reflect a commitment to enhancing viewer engagement; effort is put in to ensure that audiovisual media products, such as films, TV shows, and online videos, are enjoyable and accessible to all. Aims and Objectives The deaf rights movement is a versatile and never-ending endeavor spanning different geographies, nations, cultures, and generations. Despite numerous challenges, significant progress has been made in the movement for deaf rights. 3 This progress, from advocating for official recognition of sign languages to fighting against discrimination, promoting equal access to education, creating and increasing employment, and improving the literacy rate, instills hope and optimism for the future of the DHH community. The World Federation of the Deafblind defines deafblindness as a unique disability that includes impairments in both vision and hearing to such an extent that both visual and audial senses cannot compensate for each other. Today, about 2% of the world population, or in other words, nearly 155 million people, have such impairments. When persons with age-related sensory impairments are added, the percentage rises to 6% of the world population (around 467 million people) (Blázquez, Cappello, Lacourt, Munch, & Radel-Cormann, 2023). The struggle for deaf rights is a multi-layered and never-ending process. This widely discussed topic is a fight for recognition, mutual understanding, and equal opportunity for the DHH community. One of the opportunities is access to media products. Over time, media has expanded its reach for different purposes, such as the dissemination of information, communication, education, and entertainment. From this point forth, it would not be adequate to explain the right to accessibility for the deaf as something that ties in only to entertainment purposes. This struggle is grounded on something fundamental: the right to access information, culture, and community life. Today, our world has become a place where we are all surrounded by movies, videos, social media, and streaming services through TVs, smartphones, and tablets. Accordingly, media accessibility plays a critical role in the education and career development of the DHH community. Different types of audiovisual translation (AVT) on audiovisual (AV) texts are the sole mediums through which the DHH community accesses the same educational material as the hearing public. AVT opens the door for job opportunities and further education that might otherwise be inaccessible to the DHH community. Likewise, accessibility to media can help establish a more inclusive business climate through which all individuals have equal access to company communications, training material, or social gatherings. 4 Thus, it would not be wrong to say that the accessibility efforts are built on a more profound and emotional background. Media, whether a TV show, a social media video, or news, is a medium of connection to the broader world, distant geographies, and different cultures. Media is a way to change our perception of others, different values, and understanding of the world. However, except for a few examples, most media productions are designed at the source for individuals without sensory impairments, and their transfer to audiences with sensory impairments is full of constraints. When the DHH communities are withheld from benefitting from these experiences, it is natural to assume they are excluded and end up feeling isolated. The struggle for accessible media is not just a struggle to attain access to information or entertainment; it is a fight for social inclusion. Accessibility is meant to ensure that the DHH community becomes a part of society and that they join daily conversations on media sources information like hearing individuals do. It is about making them laugh at the same jokes, cry at the same scenes, and feel the same excitement or fear as hearing individuals. The access of the DHH community to all these experiences and a wider society depends heavily on the availability of different AVT modes, such as the ones derived from subtitling and sign language interpreting. The struggle for accessible audiovisual content for the DHH community is not just about adding text to the screen. Traditional subtitles, for example, shift speech in one language to text in another and translate only spoken words. They often overlook other audio details (i.e., sound effects, music) that are obvious to hearing viewers but are inaccessible to the DHH community. Those who rely solely on visuals and text may miss details such as sound effects, mood-altering music, or non-verbal sounds, which add additional meaning to visual elements on screen. For this reason, traditional subtitles are not suitable for persons who are deaf and hard of hearing. The DHH community may miss the whole experience of what is being communicated with traditional subtitles. In search of a solution to facilitate the engagement of the DHH audience, a more detailed textual style was adopted, and SDH emerged. However, after decades of widespread practices across different countries, reception studies on SDH have revealed that as too much information is provided with texts, it creates an 5 overload, and viewers mostly cannot keep up with the speed of the text. Also, when non-verbal audial information is not transferred with the creative load intended in the original, in essence, in SDH, we witness the loss of emotional and dramatic impact. Creative SDH goes beyond just transcribing spoken audial elements and aims to give the DHH community a more comprehensive experience of audiovisual material. This experience includes descriptions of background noises, emotional tone conveyed through music, or even using different fonts, colors, positioning, or adding extra visual layers on the screen to address different constraints in SDH. The goal is to carry as much of the auditory experience as possible onto the visual realm so that DHH viewers can enjoy and understand the content better as intended for hearing audiences at the source. It is anticipated that creative SDH can contribute to overall enjoyment and reception, particularly in specific fictional genres in which sound plays an enormous role in adding depth, texture, and authenticity to the visuals. This type of subtitling utilizes both artistic and dynamic elements to enhance the reception of intended mood, emotions, and character insights, which are enhanced with the use of non-diegetic sounds. In the absence of audial clues, while hearing viewers 'effortlessly' receive information, such may not be the case for the DHH community. Today, with available technology, prominent media service providers broadcast accessible audiovisual content. However, in social media or news platforms, accessibility is often neglected, and thus, a large portion of the DHH community does not have access to media content. This dilemma indicates that within the realm of available technology, it is possible to produce and disseminate accessible products, but accessibility policies are not adopted globally. Some countries emphasise accessibility practices and these countries implement a variety of solutions but there are others that produce only limited accessibile content and still others where accessibility is not an issue on the agenda. This reality implies that people who are not members of any DHH community may never question accessibility, and they lack full awareness of the challenges that 6 the DHH community faces in accessing audiovisual products. Instead, it needs to be recognized that for the DHH community, a "simple" text on the screen is a connection to the outside world. As digital and media-driven forms of communication advance in the future, the need for accessible audiovisual content will only grow. Nowadays, we no longer question the availability of technology to produce accessible media; we promote the desire for a shift towards media for all. The ongoing struggle for deaf rights is to ensure that no one is left behind in our media-saturated world with a focus on creating media that genuinely serves all. Within this landscape, understanding the diverse needs and preferences of this community is of critical importance in delivering accessible media. Professionals working on the production of audiovisual media typically do not have any sensory impairments, and there was the assumption that the DHH community is homogenous. In effect, almost every member of the DHH community has different needs and expectations depending on numerous factors such as degree of hearing loss, educational background, age, use of assistive devices (i.e., hearing loops, alerting systems, cochlear implants, etc.), and their preferred communication mode. All these intertwined factors influence one another and create a complex community. For instance, those born deaf or those who become deaf before a certain age do not acquire language skills as people without sensory impairments do and tend to prefer sign language as their primary mode of communication (Pendergrass, Newman, Jones, & Jenkins, 2019). Education in deaf schools supplements this choice by using sign language as a first language. They also make social affiliations at deaf schools and use sign language to interact with others, which may turn into a lifelong preference in the long run (Sign Language’s Role in Preserving Deaf Culture, 2023). Though there are countless segments within the DHH community but to help researchers, policy makers and practitioners, scholars have categorised the community under three groups: Deaf, deaf, and hard of hearing, as outlined by researchers such as (Haualand & Allen, 2009) and Neves (2005, 2008). 7 The first category, "Deaf," with a capital "D," is comprised of individuals whose primary mode of communication is sign language. They position themselves as part of a cultural and linguistic minority group known as "Deaf society" (Zárate, Subtitling for Deaf Children: Granting Accessibility to Audiovisual Programmes in an Educational Way, 2014). For the Deaf, sign language is not only a communication mode but is an integral part of their identity. As the Deaf have sensory deprivation, they have no sense of hearing; they can only rely on visual stimuli to establish a connection between the audial elements and visual elements. In addition, reading is a challenging act for most of them and accessibility efforts need to be structured and mediated around clear and concise visual aids to support their reading comprehension (Nikolaraizi, Vekiri, & Easterbrooks, 2013). Compared to the Deaf, the second group, "deaf," with lowercase "d" are relatively more integrated into the hearing society, and the deaf do place themselves in a minority group and in many cases they do not use sign language as their primary mode of communication (Napier, The D/deaf—H/hearing Debate, 2002). Depending on their degree of hearing loss, the deaf tend to communicate with spoken language. They are engaged with spoken communication as for deaf individuals, hearing loss mostly occurs later in life after acquisition of a language. In audiovisual content, they prioritize speech over visuals and thus accessibility efforts for the deaf differ from those of the Deaf. The third group is the hard of hearing (HoH). They have residual hearing and use spoken language as their primary communication mode (Gürkan, 2019, p. 24). Unlike the first two groups, they use hearing assistive devices and are able to hear to some extent. Depending on their degree of hearing loss, they can receive some auditory cues (e.g., sound effects, and background noise) and thus rely less on SDH. However, they still benefit from SDH to avoid missing out on critical information. These three main groups' different realities and expectations reveal that a one- size-fits-all approach to SDH is not viable (Ofcom, 2023). For example, while the Deaf require a complete visual representation of non-diegetic sounds (i.e. sound 8 effects or mood-setting music), the HoH individuals rely on subtitles for dialogue as they can receive sound-related information to some extent. Despite the inadequacy of a single accessible translation in the absence of a "typical" deaf person, media providers tend to produce a single set of accessible translation which falls short in addressing diverse needs and expectations. However, being the only option, even this single accessible translation is embraced by the audience. Given all the realities of the DHH community, the quality and effectiveness of accessible AVT hinges upon a collaborative approach. The DHH community members, media broadcasters, content creators, distributors, academia and policymakers need to unite with this aim and shape the future of audiovisual translation together or else all accessibility efforts may lag in meeting the specific needs of diverse communities and may not go beyond a 'better than nothing' notion. Though it is challenging to create tailored solutions that respond to the needs and expectations of every DHH community member, it is possible to adopt more inclusive strategies. For example, it would be an option to offer multiple accessible versions to give the DHH community the freedom to choose the best fit for their expectations. As a development specialist and humanitarian worker with over a decade of experience serving disadvantaged groups in the least developed countries, my motivation to research accessibility is deeply rooted in my commitment to contribute to human dignity. Over the years, across several continents, I have witnessed how marginalized communities and minorities, particularly those with disabilities, are often invisible, in the absence of access to information, education, and social life because of a lack of resources and awareness. These vulnerable groups have driven my passion for finding ways to enhance their engagement with the rest of society. Also, the idea of touching the lives of others has always been central to my personal and professional values. I have witnessed how access to resources can transform individuals, communities, and, ultimately, societies. My experience with disadvantageous groups has also shown me that communication barriers result in extreme exclusion from social, cultural, and 9 educational opportunities. For members of the DHH community, media accessibility through accessible audiovisual products is not only a convenience but also a fundamental humanitarian right. From another perspective, they are taxpaying members of society; they are not exempt from taxes by law but neglected. Thus, it is the government's and the wider populations responsibility to repay their contribution. This study aims to address these gaps and contribute to their better engagement with audiovisual content and to a wider society. By improving accessibility efforts, we can help create more inclusive societies. Thesis Structure This research is organized into five chapters, followed by a conclusion, a bibliography, and appendices. In Chapter One, this research embraces the historical evolution of audiovisual translation beginning with the silent era of cinema. To this end, starting with intertitles, this Chapter examines different AVT modes embraced over time, with a special focus on subtitling. Chapter Two centers on Media Accessibility and the Emergence of Accessible AVT modes. In this Chapter, a review of existing literature on accessibility and different accessible translation modes is presented. Also, this Chapter presents accessibility efforts in Türkiye from a cultural and political perspective. Not only the research in the field but government initiatives and workshops devoted to accessibility are included in the research. Ultimately, in Chapter Two, creative SDH, which is the leading research area of this thesis, is presented. Chapter Three is devoted to this Thesis's methodology. It also entails participant selection, survey design, corpus design and demographic characteristics of participants. Chapter Four is devoted to the theoretical framework of this study. 10 Chapter Five provides a detailed description of this study's corpus. It details the creative trajectory of each video utilized and produced. The Chapter also includes data collected from the participants in this research. Chapter Six is dedicated to the research findings, which are presented in the discussion part. The aim is to test the contribution of creative subtitles to the end- users. This Chapter provides an in-depth analysis of the findings. The Discussions Chapter contains a synthesis of the findings and a summary of the results based on this research's findings. It also presents determinants of audience reception for future reference. Finally, the resources consulted are presented in the bibliography, and appendices are included at the end of the study. 11 CHAPTER 1 THE EMERGENCE OF AUDIOVISUAL TRANSLATION AND SUBTITLING Audiovisual translation has become prominent in Translation Studies to remove linguistic and cultural barriers in transferring multimodal and multimedial content across different cultures and languages. Over time, AVT has become an integral part of the global media landscape as it removes barriers, facilitates cross-cultural communication, and, as a recent phenomenon, enhances media accessibility. The main goal of AVT is to make audiovisual content accessible to diverse audiences, regardless of their language and cultural background (Gambier Y. G., 2001), and it plays a crucial role in cultural exchange and globalization. By translating and localizing content, AVT allows for sharing stories, ideas, and values across different cultures, fostering greater understanding and appreciation of diversity (Perez-Gonzales, 2014). From a historical perspective, the post-World War II era witnessed an increase in the popularity of television. Since then, with technological advancements and the proliferation of technological devices across homes, the media sector has grown so fast that global demand for content has diversified and expanded audiovisual content. Likewise, the AVT market has witnessed a significant boom. In the first years of this expansion, countries adopted different strategies. For example, during the post-World War II era, distinct dubbing traditions were developed by different countries (Whitman-Linsen, 1992), whereas subtitling became prevalent in smaller language communities and those with higher literacy rates (Gottlieb, Subtitling: Diagonal Translation, 1994). The introduction of VHS and later DVD formats allowed for multiple subtitle tracks to address diverse linguistic audiences (Bogucki, The Constraint of Relevance in Subtitling, 2004). The digital era further revolutionized AVT with the advent of streaming services, and the demand for both subtitling and dubbing increased (Pérez-González, Audiovisual Translation: Theories, Methods, and Issues, 2014). The late 20th century witnessed groundbreaking technological advancements that reshaped AVT. New AVT 12 modes have been introduced, and different platforms and electronic devices resulted in new translation modes and platforms, thus developing new habits (Chaume, Research Paths in Audiovisual Translation: The Case of Dubbing, 2013). The 21st century has seen a diversification in AVT, with a growing emphasis on accessibility. Initially, this period marked the rise of audio description for the visually impaired and subtitling for persons who are deaf and hard of hearing (SDH), reflecting a broader commitment to inclusivity as a response to accessibility concerns (Romero-Fresco, 2015). It should also be noted during the same era that, translation studies witnessed additional phenomena, such as the proliferation of user-generated content and amateur subtitling, live subtitling, and creative subtitling. Also, in recent years, with the advent of digital technology and the internet, streaming services like Netflix and Amazon Prime have revolutionized how audiovisual content is consumed, necessitating rapid and high-quality translation to cater to global audiences (Lindsay, Panayota, & Thierry, 2017). Starting with the advent of sound in cinema, the need to access the audio track of an AV product has led to many innovative oeuvres, some of which we do not use nowadays. 1.1. THE ADVENT OF SOUND The history of audiovisual products dates back to the invention of moving images. The first audiovisual products were silent, but soon after the advent of 'talkies', language barriers hindered the access of audiences from different countries to originals, and translation became an inevitable add-on. The history of AVT can be traced back to the 1920s and 1930s, coinciding with the advent of sound in cinema. The first movie to use talkies was The Jazz Singer (1929). As there were just 2 minutes of actual dialogue in The Jazz Singer, the film had limited sound sequences, and the talkies were combined with the silent era tradition in the rest of the movie (Belton, 1999). Those years witnessed a combination of neither sound nor silent films and the struggle for a shift from silent movies to talkies. Until around the 1930s, the film industry could not and was, to some extent, reluctant to fully adapt to talkies. As cited by Groot (2018), according 13 to Gomery, this reluctance mainly resulted from higher costs as talkies would require film companies to buy new equipment and from the time to be spent learning how to produce sound films. Also, as they had no previous experience in sound film, they hesitated to wander into unchartered territory. From a translation studies perspective, silent movies were universal, just like the language of music. They were able to cross borders and were speaking to all people (Dwyer, Universally Speaking: Lost in Translation and Polyglot Cinema, 2005). With the advent of talkies, the first films were accompanied by the first examples of audiovisual translation: intertitles and live commentators/interpreters. Intertitles were on-screen texts that were used to narrate story points, present key dialogues, or even comment on the action. Different from script or scenario writers, there were professional title writers who made use of illustrations, graphic elements, or stylized texts on the screen. This gave title writers the freedom to show their creativity. Figure 1: A stylized intertitle from The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari (1920) Within time, the voyage of audiovisual productions began, and different countries adopted their own techniques for the transfer of the talkies. For example, under the dominance of Western productions in Japan, benshis were employed to make the AV product accessible. Benshi was a term used to refer to the person who is an interpreter or a commentator. Standing by the side of the screen as if a film character, the benshi was a performer who explained the scene, narrated the story, gave background information, added to the dialogue, and made comments 14 on the production. Japanese audiences became so familiar with this translation style that they became fans of this type of AVT. Eventually, benshi became a box office attraction; advertisements included the benshi's name for each production, and they earned as much as Japanese stars did (Chiu, 2011). The same technique was used in France, and interpreters/commentators who were known as "bonimenteurs" stood by the silver screen and explained parts of the film to the audience (Gaudreault & Lacasse, 1993). In the search for alternative ways to transfer films across different languages and cultures, filmmakers also experimented with multilingual productions. In multiple language productions, the films were reshot by the same director in a different language, with mostly different casts and translated scripts (Dwyer, 2005). These productions did not recreate the same film shot for shot; for economic concerns, landscape scenes, demanding and expensive scenes were mostly extracted and reused from the original. Film studios in Germany and France, followed by MGM and Paramount Pictures, carried English films into up to twelve languages- Czech, Dutch, French, German, Hungarian, Italian, Japanese, Polish, Romanian, Serbian, and Swedish (King, 2015). Figure 2. Five lead actors from the multilanguage version of the film The Big Trail (1930). Left to right: Gaston Glass (La Piste des géants), Theo Shall (Die Große Fahrt), John Wayne (The Big Trail), Franco Corsaro (Il Grande Sentiero) and Jorge Lewis (La Gran Jornada). 15 This labor-intensive and expensive process was a method in which, within a tight schedule, the films were shot simultaneously, rotating the use of studios. Though some of these examples were successful, such as the director Sternberg's The Blue Angel and its German version Der Blaue Engel (1930), this practice did not last for long and was almost eradicated by the 1940s mainly due to economic concerns (Vincendeau, 1988) and this costly method was shortly replaced with the use of voice recordings. In voice recording productions, actors recorded the translated cues, and these new recordings were introduced to the audience through this labor-intensive process. While some actors were dubbed or tried out parroting with the help of a lead in the film set, the film industry cast polyglot actors as they were able to speak their cues in different languages without the assistance of a lead present. However, in this method, voice recording was synchronized with the action on screen but without lip synchronization. Also, as the source recording is heard in the background, the audience found this method confusing. Though we use this method, also known as UN-style dubbing or VO-style dubbing, in different productions such as documentaries, live press conference broadcastings today, and interviews, this method was not found suitable for the film industry's expectations (JBI Studios, n.d.). However, replacing the spoken dialogue with a revoiced and verbalized translation is demanding and expensive; thus, seeking alternative techniques, the film industry reinvented different methods, such as dubbing and subtitling. Today, we cannot talk about a definite and de facto translation method that would be prevalent around the world as the realities and expectations of each target audience and culture differ. The most adequate method for the transfer of audiovisual material depends on the technical capacity, government and industry policies, or any other sector-specific realities of the target country. From a translation studies perspective, for years following James S. Holmes’ founding statement on the discipline of translation studies in the 1970s, translation scholars neglected audiovisual translation until the 1990s for several reasons (Díaz-Cintas J., Audiovisual Translation in Mercurial Mediascapes, 16 2019). As members of a young area of research, in the initial stage of Translation Studies, researchers dwelled on clearly defined topics and discussions. The translation act was regarded as a monomodal structure, and as a consequence, research of the era focused on the transfer of linguistic elements. Researchers handled topics such as literary, legal, or technical translation within concepts like equivalence, functionality, norms, and other clearly defined frameworks (Pardo, 2013). However, in time research trends in translation scholars have changed. In addition to what may be referred to as the comparative approach that previous eras embraced, in the last decades researchers have focused more diligently on the content, context, effects and reception of multimodal texts. In a similar manner, there is also a surge in the number of articles, books and research in the field of AVT. Previously, this medium of translation did not garner interest from scholars due to many reasons. For example, until the development and proliferation of DVDs in late 1990, dubbing and subtitling examples were not easy to access, and thus, researchers found it difficult to access originals and translations (Diaz-Cintas & Tatolytė, Changing Horizons in Audiovisual Translation: ‘We are Becoming More Aware of the Power and Impact of Language’ – Interview with Jorge Díaz-Cintas, 2023, p. 226). During the said time, researchers would take notes when viewing a translated product and an original, making extensive research very tedious. In addition, audiovisual translation was not regarded as a field of translation by scholars and was embraced by some other research areas under film translation, screen translation, or multimedia translation (Okyayuz, 2016). However, with globalization and technological advancements, the number of TV channels has increased, new digital media platforms have been introduced, and audiences have shown great interest in foreign productions. Today, the voyage of media is unstoppable, and translators play an undeniable role. Social media platforms are the mediums through which audiences hear or read about a booming lineup in any country, and digital media platforms ease the access of foreign audiences to such productions. In line with audience demand, different 17 media platforms have provided several language options since their launch, and that has brought along an inevitable need for translation professionals in the field. As a result, after being neglected since their first use in the early 1900s, since the 1990s, audiovisual translation has gained prominence in translation studies (Diaz-Cintas, 2004b). Today, audiovisual translation is not a subsidiary of translation studies, but instead, it is at the center of the field; it may be posited that it has, in a way, turned into an autonomous field of knowledge and discipline with researchers focusing their studies solely on this subfield. Valdeón addresses the exponential rise in the research of AVT with bibliography entries (Valdeón, 2022): AVT publications have grown exponentially since the 1980s. To be sure, a search for ‘audiovisual translation’ in John Benjamins Translation Studies Bibliography returns 825 entries, with only 12 records for the last two decades of the twentieth century, including Dirk Delabastita’s seminal ‘Translation and mass communication: film and TV translation as evidence of cultural dynamics’ Delabastita’s article was a programmatic piece for the subfield and is one of the most quoted articles on the topic (at the time of writing, it is Delabastita’s most quoted work on Google Scholar). In contrast, the period 2020–2022 returns a total of 106 records, including contributions by Yves Gambier, Jorge Díaz-Cintas and Elena Di Giovanni, which reflects the predominant role that European researchers still have nowadays (Valdeón, 2022, p. 369) . Nowadays, sound is an indispensable part of media production. This intertwined voyage of audiovisual products and translations started out in a relatively confined setting, such as the addition of either soundtracks or subtitles to an original, but today, with changes in technology, the field has advanced at a rate previously unseen. The term 'audiovisual' includes media products containing different audio and visual components, and audiovisual products are regarded as accompaniments to technological developments. Today, the range of these products spans larger products and more various practices. Nowadays, in the age of digital transformation, we are witnessing unprecedented changes in the media. Likewise, new technologies like tablets and laptops have been a part of our lives, so the mediums of access have also diversified. Not only the mediums of access but also the settings in which AVT becomes essential have increased exponentially. For example, today, we witness an increase in the number of audiovisual materials produced for educational purposes. Likewise, research into 18 the possible uses of AVT and AV products surges with these developments. For example, research in the field confirms that, especially for language learning, audiovisual transfer from one language and culture to another is beneficial for productive and receptive skills, as well as vocabulary acquisition and idiom retention (Lertola, 2019, p. X). Language learners, like immigrants or foreigners, may be accepted as additional audiences because in any translation act for them, both in theory and practice, different linguistic and cultural norms need to be applied. However, for example, SDH practices addressing the DHH community, whose realities differ from other groups (Okyayuz A. Ş., 2019), cannot be designed solely to teach a language. As audiovisual products encompass visual and auditory channels, audiovisual translation differs from translating print. Gottlieb (1998, as cited in Mehawesh & Neimneh, 2021, p. 1217) categorizes four types of communicative dimensions in audiovisual text. Primarily, verbal visual signs are the written texts on screen. These signs can be credits, street signs, or other written realia like newspapers, letters, headlines, or some subtitles in multilingual productions and alike. It is now widely accepted that not only the auditory elements constitute a meaning for audiovisual transfer, but a painting on the wall, a character holding a newspaper, a simple road sign, or a leaflet carried in the bag may constitute an important place in the storyline. Non-verbal visual signs are scenery, lighting, costumes, gestures, and so on. DHH people can access these non-verbal visual signs. Verbal auditory signs are dialogues, songs, lyrics, and poems, which constitute the basics of subtitling both for SDH and interlingual subtitling activities. However, nonverbal auditory signs such as the music, background noises, sound effects like laughter, cries or screaming, body sounds like breathing or coughing, intonations, different accents, etc., are peculiar to SDH (Neves J., Audiovisual Translation: Subtitling for the Deaf and Hard-of-Hearing, 2005). Nonverbal auditory signs encompass a range of sounds that are not part of spoken language but are integral to the context and narrative of audiovisual content. Nonverbal auditory signs can be pivotal in narrative storytelling. For viewers who are DHH, these sounds provide essential cues that are otherwise inaccessible. These signs can foreshadow events, establish the atmosphere, or give insight into a 19 character’s emotional state. For instance, the sound of footsteps approaching can build suspense, or a sudden loud noise can signal danger. In subtitling, conveying these elements ensures that deaf viewers are not excluded from these narrative functions. Translating nonverbal auditory signs into subtitles, which alongside the nuances (speed, intonation, volume pitch etc.) of the delivery of auditory signs is the main issue in this study, presents unique challenges. The subtitler must decide which sounds are relevant to the story and how to effectively convey them through text. This requires a balance between providing enough information to ensure understanding and avoiding an overload of details that could clutter the screen and distract from the visual elements (Díaz Cintas & Remael, Audiovisual Translation: Subtitling, 2007). Subtitlers employ various techniques to represent nonverbal sounds. Descriptive tags, such as (door ringing), (cat yowling), (thunder lighting) or (slow music playing) are commonly used. The choice of words and the brevity of the description are crucial to conveying the sound accurately and succinctly (Romero-Fresco, The Reception of Subtitles for the Deaf and Hard of Hearing in Europe, 2015). The placement and timing of these subtitles are also important to align them with the corresponding sounds in the audio track. Effective translation of nonverbal auditory signs in subtitles can significantly enhance the viewing experience for the DHH. It ensures that these viewers enjoy a more complete and immersive experience akin to that of hearing audiences. This inclusivity is not just a matter of entertainment but also a right to access information and culture (Greco, On Accessibility as a Human Right, with an Application to Media Accessibility, 2016). To understand the complexity of audiovisual translation, scholars need to better understand its impact on society. From another perspective, translation impacts audiences, and audiences impact translation, and the act of translation is shaped around the connection between the two. Translation studies explain this concept with audience design. Largely aware of the fact that ‘audience’ is a broad term that is comprised of different segments of society, audience design acknowledges the diverse needs of distinct audience groups and represents a 20 shift from treating audiences as a homogenous entity to addressing their specific sensory, cultural, and communicative requirements. This shift is particularly evident in the emergence of new AVT modes, such as SDH and audio description. As cited by Hernandez-Bartolomé and Mendulice-Cabrera (2009), Gambier (2004) uses the term “narrowcasting” to capture this evolution. Narrowcasting emphasizes a departure from traditional broadcasting in which stakeholders assume that there is a universal audience towards purpose-oriented and audience-specific practices. As coined by Gambier, narrowcasting is not about geography; it is about the shared needs and interests of specific groups regardless of their physical proximity or distance. The rise of audience design in translation studies reflects a paradigm shift that has enabled the emergence of AVT modes. Subtitles for people who are Deaf and hard of hearing serve as a prime example of narrowcasting, as it caters specifically to the needs of individuals with hearing impairments. With a tailored approach, SDH incorporates not only spoken dialogue but also sound effects and speaker identification to ensure that this specific audience group can fully engage with audiovisual content. This tailored approach demonstrates how narrowcasting reshapes AVT practices to prioritize inclusivity based not on the physical distance but on the unique sensory and cultural requirements of this community. Common practices that are still widely used since the introduction of "talking pictures" to audiences mainly rely on the replacement of the dialogues and linguistic material in the original auditory channel with a localized track (i.e., dubbing, voice-over, commentary) or the addition of an (even if constrained) visual track to the original product (i.e., subtitling, surtitling, etc.). Unlike written works, audiovisual products are composed of two complementary tracks, the audial and the visual. When the language of the original audiovisual production is unknown to the end-users, several solutions are available to enable the localization of the product in another language and culture: dubbing, subtitling, adaptation, remaking, and voice-over. As this study focuses on a creativity venue in subtitling for people who are deaf and hard of hearing, other AVT modes are not detailed in this research. Starting 21 from the evolution and categorization of subtitling, this study draws a map of different subtitling practices and recent practices and research in the field. 1.2. SUBTITLING With the advent of sound, both research and practices in the field have been focusing on the transfer of sound on auditory and textual levels. Subtitling, which can be defined as the transfer of the source with the original voice, tone, and emotion of the actors fully audible with a textual representation on screen, has always been a prominent AVT mode. In the subtitling act, spoken dialogue in the source is shown on screen in text format. Since the first textual representation of sound on screen, known as intertitles in silent cinema, subtitling has been an essential aspect of AVT. In the first years, intertitles were transferred to print and internationally distributed to reach global audiences. In 1929, the cinema industry witnessed the advent of synchronized sound and subtitling came into prominence (Kapsaskis, 2020). Historically, subtitling was often limited to professional settings, but the proliferation of technology and media has empowered amateurs and enthusiasts to create and distribute subtitles online, a phenomenon termed "fansubbing." This grassroots approach to subtitling has significantly broadened its reach, enabling quicker dissemination of audiovisual content across languages and cultures, contributing to the global recognition and acceptance of subtitles. Today, it serves a diverse range of cultural and linguistic needs across global audiences, and subtitling is recognized by audiences from all corners of the world. In AVT literature, subtitling has always been seen as a rival to dubbing. Especially in the early days, countries were divided into two categories “dubbing countries and “subtitling countries” depending on their preferences (Matamala, Parego, & Bottiroli, Dubbing versus Subtitling yet again?, 2017, p. 1). The preference for subtitling over dubbing in various countries can be attributed to a number of reasons (i.e., economic and socio-cultural), not to the superiority of one mode to another. In some regions, such as the Scandinavian area, Portugal, 22 Greece, Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, Taiwan, and the Arab world, subtitling is widely preferred. The choice of subtitling is influenced by its lower costs compared to dubbing, as well as some social and cultural realities (Ghia, 1982). Thus, it would be possible to say that the choice between dubbing and subtitling is, to some extent, a reflection of government policies that result in the development of viewing habits by the audience. Despite having some disadvantages such as the loss of intended cultural nuances during the transition from spoken to written mode and the difficulty in conveying dialectal and sociolectal features, subtitling is generally preferred due to its authenticity and the preservation of the original voice qualities. Actors' tonations and emphasis are rendered to the target culture, and in subtitling, the end-users are approximated to both source and target cultures. Additionally, while dubbing is more costly and time-consuming, subtitling is a more efficient option for audiovisual translation (Anderman, 2009). Audience habits and expectations also play a significant role in the choice between the two AVT modes. In some countries, dubbing has been a norm for a long time, and there was the general perception that audiences may have a resistance to shifting to subtitling. However, recent years have witnessed a shift from dubbing to subtitling. Frederic Chaume (2013) explains this transition towards subtitling as: Even in countries where dubbing predominates, subtitling is not unknown. In these countries there was always a demand for original version (subtitled) films from elite audiences. Now well-educated younger people are also expressing preference for subtitled original versions over dubbed ones, citing aesthetic and artistic reasons. In European dubbing countries, for instance, the practice of subtitling certain films is growing in popularity. With the introduction of DVD and Blu-Ray as the standard for watching films and television series at home, subtitling has become an established professional practice (although not an established habit) in traditionally dubbing countries. Economic criteria are generally used to decide whether to dub or subtitle a film. Commercial films, particularly in North America and in all European dubbing countries, are usually dubbed for greater impact and higher box office profits; minority art house films tend to be subtitled for smaller, less popular film venues. It is certainly true that subtitling has a much greater presence in dubbing countries than is usually imagined, whether in film, DVD, Internet, and new environments such as corporate and educational videos etc (Chaume, The Turn of Audiovisual Translation: New Audiences and New Technologies, 2013, p. 115). 23 Subtitling is challenged by linguistic constraints, technical limitations, and recent ethical dilemmas. Ideally, translators are expected to condense spoken dialogues into brief, readable texts without compromising meaning or cultural nuances. Even though different countries or broadcasters set different guidelines for subtitles, these brief texts are further synchronized with the content to fit in the average standard of presentation on screen in no more than two lines, with each having a total of 37-42 characters. In general, subtitles remain on screen for 2-7 seconds. Certainly, in contrast to static texts, these fleeting texts demand a certain level of literacy and reading speed and thus can be challenging for some audiences. These time and space limitations create an extra burden on subtitlers and urge subtitlers to understand the implicit information in the source and transfer to textual level with considerable modulation. Based on his own experience as a subtitling specialist, Gottlieb (1992, p. 166) determines ten modulation strategies that are widely adopted in the transfer of audio channels or audiovisual products: First, when possible, subtitlers make a direct translation of the source as accurately as possible. Secondly, subtitlers employ an expansion strategy when the source product has a cultural reference that is not present in the target culture. In such situations, additional explanations are made to ensure comprehension which might not be understood in the absence of elaboration (i.e. idioms or historical references). Paraphrasing is another strategy adopted by the subtitling specialists when the syntactic differences between the source and target language are encountered. In such situations, translators rephrase the source text by keeping the intended meaning and reword to fit the linguistic norms of the target language. When they follow the imitation strategy, subtitlers retain forms in the source text for cultural preservation (i.e., titles, proper names, or names of places) Transcription is another strategy applied when the source product entails unfamiliar or unconventional terms in the source. For example, the appearance 24 of a Chinese speaker character speaking in her/his own language in an English production or the use of an artificial word by a character. In such situations, subtitlers reproduce the source to reflect its unique nature. Dislocation is another technique employed in cases when the audiovisual products make use of special effects (i.e. a funny song in a cartoon movie). The deliberate choice in the source to evoke some emotional or comedic effect is adapted to the target to ensure better resonation with the end-users. The space limit in subtitling sometimes urges subtitlers to adopt the condensation technique. In such situations, the length of source text is reduced but its essential meaning is kept in order not to lose key information given. Likewise, in extreme situations, space limit urges subtitlers to adopt a decimation strategy, which is the omission of a significant portion of the text. This strategy, in a way, is a sacrifice of some elements but a preservation of the essence of information. Deletion is another technique used in subtitling act. It is the omission of some parts of the text which are deemed redundant in the context. Deletion is used to avoid subtitles that entail unnecessary details which create an extra cognitive load on the audience. The last and the least desired technique in subtitling is resignation. In situations when there is no viable solution, subtitlers adopt a resignation strategy and end up with a loss of meaning. To better understand the constraints resulting from the nature of subtitling, different researchers made different categorizations of audiovisual translations regarding its areas of application, audience realities, writing skills or some other parameters (i.e. placing, mobility, and optionality etc.) but linguistic and technical parameters are also widely used in the classification. 25 1.2.1. Linguistic Categorization Aiming to transfer audiovisual content to different audience realities, audiovisual translation operates within different functional and linguistic parameters. From a linguistic perspective, subtitles are classified under two headings: interlingual and intralingual. While interlingual translation involves the transfer between two different languages, intralingual translation occurs within the same language. They both aim to ensure the transfer of audiovisual products to a wider audience, including those with different linguistic or sensory needs. Each form of subtitling has different challenges and follows different strategies tailored to different audience expectations. A prominent figure in Translation Studies, Roman Jakobson (1959) first distinguished linguistic categorization. He defined intralingual translation as rewording or paraphrasing a text within the same language and interlingual translation as the process of translating a text between two different language pairs. Both interlingual and intralingual translation serve distinct functions and have different challenges from different standpoints. Understanding the linguistic and cultural differences between these two translation modes is of vital importance for understanding the complexity of subtitling. Interlingual translation is the process of transfer between two different languages and, thus, two different cultures. As languages are deeply embedded in the cultural practices and ethos of their speakers (Bassnett, 2002), in interlingual translation, translators navigate not only linguistic but cultural nuances to ensure that subtitles convey the meaning and message of the original. For this reason, interlingual translation is more than simply finding a lexical equivalent for words; it is an interpretation of the meaning in the source text and a search for the most appropriate cultural equivalent in the target (Venuti L., 2008). In audiovisual products, cultural expressions mostly carry a further depth, such as historical significance. In interlingual translation, finding an equivalent for culture-specific references, such as idioms, which may not have direct equivalents in the target language and culture, is a prominent challenge. In other 26 words, interlingual subtitling is the transfer of a spoken dialogue to a foreign language and audience who do not speak or understand the language of the source. Thus, the challenge is twofold: it involves both the transfer of meaning and accommodation of cultural differences between these two pairs and establishing a balance between these two (Díaz Cintas & Remael, Audiovisual Translation: Subtitling, 2007). Finding an equivalent in the target is a complex act in such situations. For example, translators dwell on finding a creative solution while translating proverbs, humor, or wordplays, as literal translation may not transfer the intended meaning to the target. Nevertheless, this does not mean that every creative solution is a perfect equivalent. Thus, translators must find a balance between fidelity to the source and the expectations and realities of the target. Additionally, the time and space limitations urge subtitling specialists to reduce the textual load on the screen, which can lead to a loss of nuance or specificity. This adds another task for subtitling specialists to negotiate between linguistic accuracy and practical demands of the translation mode and find a viable option for such complex situations. Subtitling specialists not only ensure that the meaning and sense in the source are preserved but also translate the constraints of the translation mode as well as synchronize the text on screen with the visuals to make them easy to follow (Díaz Cintas & Remael, Audiovisual Translation: Subtitling, 2007). Intralingual translation, on the other hand, is the transfer of a message in one language or register of a language into another variant or register within the same language. This translation mode is used in situations where there is a need to adapt and tailor a product for a specific target or simplify and clarify. This translation mode is used in texts that contain specialized terminology, such as legal documents or medical and literary texts, which need to be translated into a more accessible everyday language to ensure that the text can reach a wider community (Kalem Bakkal, 2019). This transfer does not entail changing the language but rather shifting the linguistic register, tone, and vocabulary to 27 produce a tailored text. From this viewpoint, intralingual translation is a form of adaptation or reformulation where the meaning is prioritized for clarity. Intralingual translation follows the same rules and shifts the linguistic information in line with the realities and expectations of the target. This translation mode can be used in language learning or where the audience needs additional support due to heavy dialects, fast-paced speech or such that hinders comprehension. It also includes subtitling of audiovisual products for immigrants, refugees, karaoke singers, or primarily for the DHH community (Liu, 2014). In subtitling for the DHH community, the focus is not solely on the spoken words but also on conveying important auditory cues (i.e., sound effects and music), which are an important part of the narrative (Neves J., Audiovisual Translation: Subtitling for the Deaf and Hard-of-Hearing, 2005). In subtitling for people who are Deaf and hard of hearing, spoken language is transferred into written subtitles, often adapted to overcome the constraints of reading speed and screen time (Gottlieb, Subtitling: Diagonal Translation, 1994). SDH does not only entail the dialogues but the transfer of paratextual information (i.e., footsteps, a doorbell ring, a dog barking, a timer, a fire alarm) that the DHH community can only access if given within the subtitles. This AVT mode is mainly used for TV and online streaming platforms for both foreign and domestic productions. Intralingual translation is rarely observed for audiences with different dialects, such as in China, where more than 50 ethnic groups live with different dialects (Xiong, 2022), or in the US, for only a limited number of media products such as the ones with strong Scottish accents like the release of the British film Trainspotting with English subtitles in the United States or in Italy, where since the 1990s, the southern productions are subtitled into standard Italian (Liu, 2014). As in audiovisual productions, English is dominant, and the market share of foreign productions accounts for a small share in the English-speaking world; the need for subtitling in Anglophone countries is relatively low when compared to the rest of the world. For that reason, the intralingual translation examples in Anglophone countries are mostly linked to the subtitles for the DHH community (Study on the Use of Subtitling, 2011). 28 Intralingual and interlingual subtitling are essential in accessibility efforts, but they require different approaches and strategies depending on their purposes. Intralingual translation is mostly linked to the accessibility efforts to ensure that DHH audiences can engage with audiovisual products, while interlingual translation is rooted in the practice of linguistic and cultural transfer across borders. The different purposes, techniques, and strategies adopted in these two subtitling modes highlight the complexity and diversity of subtitling within AVT. While they adopt different strategies, one focusing on rewording, adding, or eliminating within the same language, the other on linguistic transfer, they both serve critical roles in the dissemination of audiovisual content. As Jakobson (1959) famously argued, subtitling, whether intralingual or interlingual, goes beyond a straightforward process of translating words; it is an interpretative act that demands thoughtful attention to context, audience, and purpose. Thus, subtitling continues to be a crucial and adaptive practice in the ever-changing fields of media accessibility and cross-cultural communication. 1.2.2. Technical Categorization From a technical perspective, subtitling can be categorized under three headings: open subtitles, closed captions, and specialized subtitling (i.e., Teletext, live subtitling, and subtitling for opera, theatrical works, and conferences) (Liu, 2014). From a functional viewpoint, each differs from one another and has different advantages and limitations. Also known as "burned-in" and "hardcoded" subtitles, open subtitles are permanently added to the content. Open subtitles cannot be turned off and are always visible on screen, and they do not require any technical intervention from the user. In cinematic releases or specific digital platforms, open subtitles are used. In some cases, viewers who do not require subtitles may find them intrusive and a source of distraction on screen. Also, as they are embedded in the video, it is not possible to easily change or remove open subtitles, which is a drawback, especially when disseminating content across different geographies where 29 different subtitle versions may be required for a different audience (Díaz Cintas & Remael, Audiovisual Translation: Subtitling, 2007). On the contrary, closed captions are more flexible as they can easily be controlled, activated, or deactivated by the viewer. Widely used in TV broadcasts, DVDs, and streaming platforms, closed captions give the audience the freedom to decide and control the access to the content depending on their individual needs, but the audience needs to possess necessary technologies such as a player and subtitles plug-in support (He & Zhang, 2022). Closed captions are adaptable and practical for content that travels across regions with different linguistic or accessibility needs, as it is also possible to add multiple subtitle tracks in the same video file. Also, unlike open captions, which are like a "watermark" on the media products, as they are not permanently burned in on the video, it is an easy process to edit or replace the subtitles without any interference to the video itself, which makes closed captions ideal for content that travel across borders. In addition, as they can be customized with additional information (i.e., sound effects, music, audio cues, speaker identification), closed captions not only provide a transfer of spoken dialogue but a fuller representation of the audio environment (Neves J., Audiovisual Translation: Subtitling for the Deaf and Hard- of-Hearing, 2005). However, as in every AVT mode, closed captions also have several limitations. From a technical viewpoint, depending on the device or platform on which the AV product is broadcasted, their quality differs. Also, as not all devices support closed captions, sometimes synchronization problems between dialogue and text on the screen are observed, which hinders overall enjoyment. Other technical parameters include teletext subtitling, live subtitling and specialized subtitling acts also known as surtitles for opera, theatrical works and conferences. Once commonly used in televisions, Teletext subtitling allows viewers to access subtitles via a Teletext page. Today, with the rise of digital media, teletext subtitles retreat into the background, but it remains an important tool for providing subtitles in regions where analog broadcasting systems are still available. The teletext system provides audiences flexibility and freedom as the 30 viewers have control over the subtitles. They can enable or disable the subtitles themselves, but it is constrained by the technology itself as it limits the screen and does not have many font options. Live subtitling is used in the broadcast of live events such as news, sports, and TV shows and provides immediate access to real-time content but poses significant challenges in terms of available technology, accuracy, and timing resulting from the fast-paced nature of live events which brings along errors in transcription, omissions or delays particularly when relying on automatic speech recognition systems that have difficulty identifying different accents, background noise or overlapping speeches (Romero-Fresco, 2018). A distinct set of difficulties arise for the subtitling specialists when it comes to subtitling operas, plays, and conferences since these live performances need subtitles that are updated in real-time for the audience and coordinated with the action on stage. These subtitles, which are frequently projected above the stage or shown on separate screens, are designed for the audience to follow speeches or performances in foreign languages. One benefit of this type of subtitling is that it gives viewers access to content that they might not otherwise be able to access because of language barriers. However, in live performances, when the tempo of speeches or conversations may change, controlling the timing and placement of subtitles can be challenging. Additionally, technological problems with projection or display might hinder the overall enjoyment (Mateo, 2007). There are other technology-related subtitling types that can possibly be grouped under other given headings, but some researchers underline that a very sophisticated and intricate classification may lead to confusion and is not viable to provide guidance for academia (Liu, 2014). Depending on their use, open captions, closed captions, and specialized subtitling acts offer unique benefits and drawbacks in the transfer of audiovisual products, but they are essential for improving the overall enjoyment, encouraging inclusivity, and increasing accessibility to AV products. Within the realm of available technology today, over- the-top service providers of our age (i.e., Netflix, Amazon Prime, or Disney+) provide the necessary technical infrastructure to give the audience the freedom 31 to decide their own viewing preferences. In movie theaters, especially for interlingual transfer, open captioning is widely used, but with recent advancements in the field, some movie theaters are providing the audience with some closed captioning tools (Zarate, 2021, p. 88). Mirrors, caption stands, smart glasses, or mobile applications are offered to the audience to make it easier to personalize access to subtitles. Some movie halls and theaters offer mirrors for the audience to follow the subtitles projected on the back wall of the hall (Atcherson, Franklin, & Smith-Olinde, 2015, p. 34). Known as the rear window captioning system, it was patented by Rufus Butler Seder. His interest in optical devices and conventional motion pictures led to the rear window captioning system, and his patented subtitling system is used by Disney World theater and many IMAX and OMNIMAX venues (Atcherson, Franklin, & Smith-Olinde, 2015, p. 185). Some movie halls offer LED displays, which are also referred to as closed caption stands, and install screens on the back of the front seat (Miller, 2013). Smart glasses are also used to enhance accessibility in cinemas. They project subtitles directly to the lenses of the glasses, and unlike the other techniques, these smart glasses offer viewers better engagement with the on-screen action without the need to shift focus between two separate screens. Smart glasses offer a more immersive cinematic experience, especially to the DHH community, but they are problematic for audiences wearing prescription glasses. Unlike their popularity in the US, due to different economic concerns, they are not recognized globally yet. (Zarate, 2021). 32 CHAPTER 2 THE MEDIA ACCESSIBILITY AND EMERGENCE OF NEW ACCESSIBLE AVT MODES Media accessibility, which is the main area of research of this Thesis, is a fraction of the term accessibility. Accessibility is about making information, environments, activities, products, devices, services, and vehicles accessible to everyone. This term is used to ensure that barriers are removed and that every individual engages and participates in daily life as people without impairments do. As described in the Encyclopedia of Quality of Life and Well-Being Research (2014) this broad term requires the design of products, services, facilities, concepts, or, in a broader sense, environment in line with accessibility concerns. For accessibility, a barrier-free environment is needed. In this regard, an accessible environment means more than just physical access to a building; instead, it entails access to the social environment. To this end, a series of steps need to be taken to make sure that every member of any society can move around without obstacles in both indoor and outdoor facilities, can live independently, have mobility, have access to information and communication technologies, should be given the freedom to choose among different media and information (Maliszewska-Nienartowicz, 2020). Accessibility, as a concept within Audiovisual Translation (AVT), refers to the process of making audiovisual content available and comprehensible to all individuals, including those with sensory disabilities such as hearing impairments or visual impairments. The role of AVT in fostering accessibility has grown significantly in recent years, as various legal frameworks, technological advancements, and social movements have worked to ensure that persons with sensory impairments are granted equal access to media content. The definition of accessibility in the context of AVT is closely linked to the field of disability rights, where the concept has evolved from merely ensuring basic access to information 33 to developing more inclusive and participatory approaches that consider the diverse needs of different audiences. 2.1. MEDIA ACCESSIBILITY EFFORTS IN THE WORLD The evolution of accessibility within AVT cannot be fully understood without acknowledging the impact of disability rights move