Hacettepe University Graduate School of Social Sciences Department of Translation and Interpreting ANALYSIS OF RUPAUL’S DRAG RACE IN TÜRKİYE FROM A TRANSLATION STUDIES PERSPECTIVE Züleyha KOL Master’s Thesis Ankara, 2024 ANALYSIS OF RUPAUL’S DRAG RACE IN TÜRKİYE FROM A TRANSLATION STUDIES PERSPECTIVE Züleyha KOL Hacettepe University Graduate School of Social Sciences Department of Translation and Interpreting Master’s Thesis Ankara, 2024 ACCEPTANCE AND APPROVAL Züleyha KOL tarafından hazırlanan “Analysis of RuPaul’s Drag Race in Türkiye from a Translation Studies Perspective” başlıklı bu çalışma, 30.05.2024 tarihinde yapılan savunma sınavı sonucunda başarılı bulunarak jürimiz tarafından Yüksek Lisans Tezi olarak kabul edilmiştir. Doç. Dr. Sinem BOZKURT (Jury President) Doç. Dr. Hilal ERKAZANCI DURMUŞ (Main Adviser) Dr. Öğr. Üyesi Ayşe SAKİ DEMİREL (Jury Member) Yukarıdaki imzaların adı geçen öğretim üyelerine ait olduğunu onaylarım. Prof. Dr. Uğur ÖMÜRGÖNÜLŞEN Enstitü Müdürü YAYIMLAMA VE FİKRİ MÜLKİYET HAKLARI BEYANI Enstitü tarafından onaylanan lisansüstü tezimin tamamını veya herhangi bir kısmını, basılı (kağıt) ve elektronik formatta arşivleme ve aşağıda verilen koşullarla kullanıma açma iznini Hacettepe Üniversitesine verdiğimi bildiririm. Bu izinle Üniversiteye verilen kullanım hakları dışındaki tüm fikri mülkiyet haklarım bende kalacak, tezimin tamamının ya da bir bölümünün gelecekteki çalışmalarda (makale, kitap, lisans ve patent vb.) kullanım hakları bana ait olacaktır. Tezin kendi orijinal çalışmam olduğunu, başkalarının haklarını ihlal etmediğimi ve tezimin tek yetkili sahibi olduğumu beyan ve taahhüt ederim. Tezimde yer alan telif hakkı bulunan ve sahiplerinden yazılı izin alınarak kullanılması zorunlu metinleri yazılı izin alınarak kullandığımı ve istenildiğinde suretlerini Üniversiteye teslim etmeyi taahhüt ederim. Yükseköğretim Kurulu tarafından yayınlanan “Lisansüstü Tezlerin Elektronik Ortamda Toplanması, Düzenlenmesi ve Erişime Açılmasına İlişkin Yönerge” kapsamında tezim aşağıda belirtilen koşullar haricince YÖK Ulusal Tez Merkezi / H.Ü. Kütüphaneleri Açık Erişim Sisteminde erişime açılır. o Enstitü / Fakülte yönetim kurulu kararı ile tezimin erişime açılması mezuniyet tarihimden itibaren 2 yıl ertelenmiştir. (1) o Enstitü / Fakülte yönetim kurulunun gerekçeli kararı ile tezimin erişime açılması mezuniyet tarihimden itibaren ….. ay ertelenmiştir. (2) o Tezimle ilgili gizlilik kararı verilmiştir. (3) ……/………/…… [İmza] Züleyha KOL 1“Lisansüstü Tezlerin Elektronik Ortamda Toplanması, Düzenlenmesi ve Erişime Açılmasına İlişkin Yönerge” (1) Madde 6. 1. Lisansüstü tezle ilgili patent başvurusu yapılması veya patent alma sürecinin devam etmesi durumunda, tez danışmanının önerisi ve enstitü anabilim dalının uygun görüşü üzerine enstitü veya fakülte yönetim kurulu iki yıl süre ile tezin erişime açılmasının ertelenmesine karar verebilir. (2) Madde 6. 2. Yeni teknik, materyal ve metotların kullanıldığı, henüz makaleye dönüşmemiş veya patent gibi yöntemlerle korunmamış ve internetten paylaşılması durumunda 3. şahıslara veya kurumlara haksız kazanç imkanı oluşturabilecek bilgi ve bulguları içeren tezler hakkında tez danışmanının önerisi ve enstitü anabilim dalının uygun görüşü üzerine enstitü veya fakülte yönetim kurulunun gerekçeli kararı ile altı ayı aşmamak üzere tezin erişime açılması engellenebilir. (3) Madde 7. 1. Ulusal çıkarları veya güvenliği ilgilendiren, emniyet, istihbarat, savunma ve güvenlik, sağlık vb. konulara ilişkin lisansüstü tezlerle ilgili gizlilik kararı, tezin yapıldığı kurum tarafından verilir *. Kurum ve kuruluşlarla yapılan işbirliği protokolü çerçevesinde hazırlanan lisansüstü tezlere ilişkin gizlilik kararı ise, ilgili kurum ve kuruluşun önerisi ile enstitü veya fakültenin uygun görüşü üzerine üniversite yönetim kurulu tarafından verilir. Gizlilik kararı verilen tezler Yükseköğretim Kuruluna bildirilir. Madde 7.2. Gizlilik kararı verilen tezler gizlilik süresince enstitü veya fakülte tarafından gizlilik kuralları çerçevesinde muhafaza edilir, gizlilik kararının kaldırılması halinde Tez Otomasyon Sistemine yüklenir. * Tez danışmanının önerisi ve enstitü anabilim dalının uygun görüşü üzerine enstitü veya fakülte yönetim kurulu tarafından karar verilir. ETİK BEYAN Bu çalışmadaki bütün bilgi ve belgeleri akademik kurallar çerçevesinde elde ettiğimi, görsel, işitsel ve yazılı tüm bilgi ve sonuçları bilimsel ahlak kurallarına uygun olarak sunduğumu, kullandığım verilerde herhangi bir tahrifat yapmadığımı, yararlandığım kaynaklara bilimsel normlara uygun olarak atıfta bulunduğumu, tezimin kaynak gösterilen durumlar dışında özgün olduğunu, Doç. Dr. Hilal ERKAZANCI DURMUŞ danışmanlığında tarafımdan üretildiğini ve Hacettepe Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Tez Yazım Yönergesine göre yazıldığını beyan ederim. [İmza] Züleyha KOL ‘If you can’t love yourself, how in the hell you gonna love somebody else? Can I get an amen?’ RuPaul Andre Charles v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to express my gratitude to my thesis supervisor Assoc. Prof. Hilal ERKAZANCI DURMUŞ for her academic and motivational support. Her guidance and wisdom have shaped my path in ways I never imagined. vi ABSTRACT KOL, Züleyha. Analysis of RuPaul’s Drag Race in Türkiye from a Translation Studies Perspective, Master’s Thesis, Ankara, 2024. Queer translation has been a significant research area within Translation Studies. The increasing presence of queer content on streaming services like Netflix highlights the importance of subtitling in conveying queer discourse. This study firstly aims to examine the micro- and macro- translation strategies employed in the Turkish subtitles of the American reality TV show RuPaul’s Drag Race (RPDR) and its spin-offs available on Netflix, with a particular focus on the transmission of drag language. RPDR heavily utilises drag language, which, as an anti-language of the drag queen sub-culture, is rich in queer elements and deserves attention due to the challenges it poses for subtitling. The second goal of this study is to explore how and to what extent the translational decisions in the Turkish subtitles capture the queer essence of drag language. The three key concepts that guide the study are performativity, identity, and discourse. The micro-analysis employs Jan Pedersen’s (2011) Extralinguistic Cultural Reference transfer taxonomy adapted to examine Intralinguistic Cultural References under four categories, namely (i) the word ‘drag’ and its derivatives, (ii) gender-specific expressions, (iii) ballroom culture, and (iv) miscellaneous. The macro-analysis employs Marc Démont’s (2018) queer translation strategies, initially formulated for literary texts, for the subtitling examples in this thesis. The study reveals that certain instances, classified as misrecognizing or minoritizing translation in the analysis, cannot be definitively characterised as such, as they are supported by visual elements that facilitate a process of queering translation. The study concludes that the Turkish subtitles predominantly reflect the queer nature of the show and that the utilization of micro- and macro- translation strategies can be markedly influenced by the limitations imposed by the subtitling process. The analysis of the strategies also reveals that the translator(s) adopt an activist approach in introducing Western queer terms into another culture. Keywords RuPaul’s Drag Race, queer translation, subtitling, drag language, anti-language vii ÖZET KOL, Züleyha. Çeviribilim Perspektifinden Türkiye’de RuPaul’s Drag Race Programının Analizi, Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Ankara, 2024. Kuir çeviri, Çeviribilim alanında öne çıkan bir çalışma alanıdır. Netflix gibi dijital yayın platformları tarafından sunulan kuir içeriklerin hızla artması, altyazı çevirisinin kuir söylemin iletilmesinde kritik bir araç haline gelmesini sağlamıştır. Bu çalışmanın ilk amacı, Netflix’te yayınlanan Amerikan reality şovu RuPaul’s Drag Race (RPDR) ve yan programlarının Türkçe altyazılarında kullanılan mikro ve makro çeviri stratejilerini incelemektir. Bunu yaparken drag dilinin nasıl iletildiğine odaklanılmaktadır. RPDR’de kullanılan ‘drag’ dili, drag queen alt kültürü tarafından kullanılan bir anti-dil olması nedeniyle birçok kuir unsuru barındırmakta ve Türkçeye altyazı yoluyla aktarılırken yarattığı bazı zorluklar nedeniyle ön plana çıkmaktadır. Çalışmanın ikinci amacı, drag dilinin kuir niteliğinin Türkçe altyazılarda hangi çeviri kararları ile ne ölçüde yansıtıldığının ortaya çıkarılmasıdır. Burada referans alınan kavramlar performativite, kimlik ve söylemdir. Mikro analiz için, Jan Pedersen’in (2011) Dildışı Kültürel Referans aktarımı taksonomisindeki mikro çeviri stratejileri, Diliçi Kültürel Referansları incelemek için uyarlanmıştır. Diliçi Kültürel Referanslar; (i) ‘drag’ kelimesi ve türleri, (ii) cinsiyete özgü ifadeler, (iii) balo salonu kültürü ve (iv) muhtelif adlı kategoriler altında incelenmiştir. Marc Démont’un (2018) kuir metinlerin çevirisi modelindeki çeviri stratejileri de makro çeviri stratejileri olarak kullanılmıştır. Démont’un başlangıçta edebi metinler için formüle ettiği çeviri stratejileri bu tezdeki altyazı örneklerinde kullanılmıştır. Bu çalışmanın analiz kısmında ‘farkına varmama’ veya ‘anlamı eksiltme’ olarak sınıflandırılan belirli örneklerin, çeviriyi ‘kuirleştirme’ sürecini kolaylaştıran görsel öğelerle desteklenmeleri nedeniyle kesin olarak bu sınıflandırmalarla nitelendirilemeyeceği görülmüştür. Türkçe altyazıların drag dilinin niteliğini ağırlıklı olarak yansıttığı sonucuna varılmıştır. Ayrıca mikro ve makro çeviri stratejilerinin kullanımının altyazı sürecinin getirdiği sınırlamalardan önemli ölçüde etkilenebileceği sonucuna varılmıştır. Kullanılan çeviri stratejilerinin analizi, çevirmenlerin Batıya ait kuir terimleri başka bir kültüre tanıtırken aktivist bir yaklaşım benimsediğini de ortaya koymuştur. Anahtar Sözcükler RuPaul’s Drag Race, kuir çeviri, altyazı çevirisi, drag dili, anti-dil viii TABLE OF CONTENTS ACCEPTANCE AND APPROVAL…………………………………….…………….i YAYIMLAMA VE FİKRİ MÜLKİYET HAKLARI BEYANI…………………….ii ETİK BEYAN………………………………………………………………………....iii DEDICATION………………………………………………………………………...iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ………………………………………..…........................v ABSTRACT ..……………………………………………………………....................vi ÖZET………………………………………………………………………………….vii TABLE OF CONTENTS……………………………………………........................viii ABBREVIATIONS ……. ……………………………………….................................x LIST OF FIGURES, TABLES AND GRAPHS.............……… ……………………xi INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………..………………....1 CHAPTER 1: LITERATURE REVIEW ON QUEER THEORY ………………....7 1.1. EVOLUTION OF QUEER THEORY ………………………………….7 1.1.1. Queer Identity from the Perspective of Foucault’s Concepts of Identity and Discourse.............................................................................11 1.1.2. Performativity…………………………………………………....13 1.2. QUEER IN LITERATURE AND MEDIA IN THE WORLD ……….15 1.3. QUEER IN LITERATURE AND MEDIA IN TÜRKİYE…………….18 1.3.1. Kaos GL Magazine ……………………………………………...21 1.4. ANTI-LANGUAGE ……………………………………………………...22 1.4.1. Lubunca..........................................................................................23 CHAPTER 2: QUEER THEORY AND TRANSLATION STUDIES …………….27 2.1. QUEER TRANSLATION STUDIES …………………………………...27 2.2. AVT AND QUEER TRANSLATION STUDIES ……………………...37 2.2.1. Definition and Types of AVT........................................................37 2.2.2. Constraints of Subtitling………………….……………………...40 2.2.3. Queer Subtitling Studies………………….……………………...42 ix CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY…………………………………………………...46 3.1. EXTRALINGUISTIC CULTURAL REFERENCES (ECRs) TRANSFER STRATEGIES……………….………………………………..46 3.2. MARC DÉMONT’S THREE MODES OF TRANSLATING QUEER LITERARY TEXTS …………………........……………………………..58 CHAPTER 4: ANALYSIS OF THE TURKISH SUBTITLES OF RUPAUL’S DRAG RACE AND ITS SPIN-OFFS ON NETFLIX ………...……………………..62 4.1. CASE STUDY: RUPAUL’S DRAG RACE AND ITS SPIN-OFFS …….62 4.1.1. RuPaul’s Drag Race and Its Spin-Offs........................................63 4.1.2. Drag Language as an Anti-Language ……………......................64 4.2. ANALYSIS …………………........……………………………………….65 4.2.1. The Word ‘Drag’ and Its Derivatives...........................................66 4.2.2. Gender-Related Expressions ……………...................................71 4.2.3. Ballroom Culture..........................................................................95 4.2.4. Miscellaneous ……………........................................................105 CHAPTER 5: FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION ……………………………...........118 CONCLUSION………..……………………………………………………………..131 BIBLIOGRAPHY…………………………………………………………………....142 APPENDIX A. ETHICS BOARD WAIVER FORM …………………………… .161 APPENDIX B. ORIGINALITY REPORT……....………………………………...163 x ABBREVIATIONS ST: Source Text TT: Target Text SC: Source Culture TC: Target Culture SL: Source Language TL: Target Language TS: Translation Studies AVT: Audiovisual Translation ECR: Extralinguistic Cultural Reference ICR: Intralinguistic Cultural Reference SC ICR: Source Culture Intralinguistic Cultural Reference TC ICR: Target Culture Intralinguistic Cultural Reference TDK: Turkish Language Association’s Current Turkish Dictionary The Kaos GL Dictionary: Kaos GL Association’s EN-TR Translation Dictionary on LGBTI+ Rights LGBTI+: Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender, Intersex and Plus xi LIST OF FIGURES, TABLES AND GRAPHS Figure 1. The taxonomy of ECR transfer strategies by Pedersen (2011)……………….51 Figure 2. The ECR transfer strategies taxonomy adapted to study ICRs………………56 Table 1. The corpus of the thesis……………………………………………………….62 Table 2. The Micro- and Macro-Translation Strategies Employed in the Turkish Subtitles of RPDR and Its Spin-Offs…………………………………………………………….118 Graph 1. The Number of Micro-Translation Strategies Employed…………………...123 Graph 2. The Percentage of the Distribution of the Target and Source-Oriented Micro- Translation Strategies………………………………………………………………….125 Graph 3. The Percentage of the Distribution of the Macro-Translation Strategies Employed……………………………………………………………………………...126 1 INTRODUCTION 1. GENERAL REMARKS Gender, sexuality, and identity have been the subjects of the studies in several disciplines, such as sociology, linguistics, and philosophy for decades. As a result, it can be said that Queer Theory was originated mainly from gender studies and feminist studies and was theorised in the 1990s. Annamarie Jagose (1996) emphasises that its complex nature and scope can be understood by examining the gay liberation movement in the 1960s. Specifically the Stonewall riots started by gay community and expanded to include other marginal sexual identities, such as bisexuals, drag queens, transvestites and transsexuals (Jagose, 1996, p. 40). Among the scholars who paved the foundation for the birth of Queer Theory are Gayle Rubin (1984), Michel Foucault (1978), Judith Butler (1990, 1993), and Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick (1990). Despite the emergence of ‘queer’ as a new subject of study, the exploration of ‘queer’ components in literature and culture is still ongoing via academic research conducted in several disciplines. Although translation has always been a powerful tool for activists who reclaim LGBTI+ (Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender, Intersex and Plus) rights, the paths of Queer Theory and Translation Studies did not cross until the 2000s. Activist translation has been a well-established notion in Translation Studies, with its origins in feminist translation, post-colonial translation studies, and the practices of the late 20th century. In this respect, the term ‘queer’ has been studied under queer translation studies for decades now. There are queer translation strategies to examine queer content in literature and media, such as Emily Rose’s (2017) queer translation strategies for French into English translations, B.J. Epstein’s (2017) ‘eradicalization’ and ‘acqueering’ strategies, and Marc Démont’s (2018) three modes to translate queer literary texts, namely ‘misrecognizing translation’, ‘minoritizing translation’, and ‘queering translation’. Although there is a growing number of studies on Queer Theory in Türkiye in several disciplines, it can be said that the theses in Translation Studies that examine the transmission of queer elements through macro- and micro-translation strategies are not at 2 a sufficient level in the discipline. In this respect, the contents available on online streaming service providers constitute great sources for queer translation studies. Therefore, this thesis aims at providing the field with a case study analysed through micro- and macro-translation strategies through the lens of activism to contribute to the field, focusing on subtitles in a queer context. 2. PURPOSE AND SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY Queer translation studies, which combines the disciplines of Translation Studies and Queer Theory, has gained significant popularity in the field of Translation Studies since the 2000s when these two areas of study intersected. In addition to literary works that facilitate the transmission of Western queer concepts into non-Western cultures through translation, it can be seen that online streaming providers, like Netflix, have experienced a surge in popularity and have emerged as significant means for accessing queer material in recent decades. Hence, queer content is intensively conveyed to the target audience by means of Audiovisual Translation (AVT) today. The literature review reveals the scarcity of academic studies on the analysis of subtitles of queer elements in queer contexts between English and Turkish. Furthermore, no studies have been identified specifically addressing RuPaul’s Drag Race in Türkiye. Considering that ‘queer’ can be seen as obtaining to a subculture because it is often used by individuals who identify with LGBTI+ communities and who reject or challenge mainstream norms and conventions related to sexuality and gender, this study aims at providing an example of the analysis of the subtitles of queer elements in a queer context in the English-Turkish language pair. The case study of this thesis includes an American reality TV show RuPaul’s Drag Race (RPDR) and its spin-offs, namely All Stars, Untucked, Secret Celebrity Drag Race, and Holi-slay Spectacular with a focus on the concepts of ‘performativity’ as proposed by Butler (1990), ‘identity’ and ‘discourse’ as proposed by Foucault (1978), and ‘activism’. The reason behind choosing RPDR as a case study is the unique nature of drag language that can be considered an anti-language. The existence of Lubunca, an anti-language in Turkish, along with the activist nature of drag language, has made the show a compelling subject for research. The Turkish subtitles of the show are analysed in light of the micro- 3 translation strategies, specific to subtitling, as proposed by Pedersen (2011) and the macro-translation strategies, specific to the translation of queer literary works, as proposed by Démont (2018). The two-layer analysis aims at examining which micro- and macro-strategies are employed in the subtitles to transfer the nature of drag language in terms of activist translation approach, revealing how and to what extent the translational decisions reflect the queer meaning of the source text (ST) in the target text (TT), in light of the concepts ‘performativity’, ‘identity’, and ‘discourse’. 3. RESEARCH QUESTIONS According to the purpose and significance of the study specified above, this study aims at answering the following research questions through a case study analysis in a queer context. Research question 1: Which micro-translation strategies suggested by Jan Pedersen (2011) are employed in the Turkish subtitles of RPDR and its spin-offs on Netflix? Sub-question: Are the subtitles source- or target-oriented? Research question 2: Which macro-translation strategies suggested by Marc Démont (2018) are employed in the Turkish subtitles of RPDR and its spin-offs on Netflix? Sub-question 1: To what extent are the features of drag language, as an anti-language, transferred into Turkish? Sub-question 2: What can be the factors influencing the translational decisions? Research question 3: How do the translational decisions taken in the Turkish subtitles of RPDR and its spin-offs on Netflix serve to reflect drag performativity, identity and discourse embedded in the ST? 4. METHODOLOGY This is a descriptive study based on a case study analysis. Firstly, the Intralinguistic Cultural References (ICRs), which cover slang expressions, neologisms and cultural 4 elements, in the RPDR and its above-mentioned spin-offs were selected to create a pool of instances with 374 instances. These instances were reduced to 54 throughout time with an aim to select the most representatives ones. Choosing these instances from the corpus of this thesis was difficult due to the abundance of accessible episodes of the show on Netflix. When selecting, the main focus was on finding crucial phrases associated with drag and drag performance, beginning with the word ‘drag’ and its related forms. Next, gender-related expressions found in the Kaos-GL Association’s “LGBTİ+ Hakları Alanında Çeviri Sözlüğü” (EN-TR Translation Dictionary on LGBTI+ Rights) (2020) (hereinafter, “the Kaos GL Dictionary”), written by Deniz Gedizlioğlu, and also used by drag queens in RPDR were identified. In this context, it is worth identifying the Kaos GL Dictionary as a reference document for translating queer texts. This dictionary is chosen as a reference document due to the activist translation practices of the translators and editors of the Kaos-GL Association, which was established in 1994 to support the LGBTI+ in Türkiye. Its translational activities since 1994 through Kaos GL Magazine have led to the creation of a dictionary of LGBTI+ terms. Then, words related to ballroom culture (e.g., ‘cheesecake’ and ‘vogueing’) were shortlisted, with a focus on those frequently used in the show. The ballroom culture refers to the ballroom scene in Harlem, New York in the 1980s in which the black gay community would gather and compete in front of a jury just like represented in RPDR. And miscellaneous words with significant cultural references are selected for analysis. The instances are grouped under four categories (the word ‘drag’ and its derivatives, gender-related expressions, ballroom culture, and miscellaneous) because Pedersen (2011) advises to do so to facilitate the micro-analysis. Secondly, the micro-strategy analysis of the 54 instances is conducted through the Intralinguistic Cultural Reference (ICR) transfer strategies, a taxonomy adapted from the Extralinguistic Cultural Reference (ECR) transfer strategies proposed by Pedersen (2011). Here, Extralinguistic Cultural Reference refers to the cultural elements, such as real or fictitious persons, brand names, foods, etc. Lastly, the macro-strategy analysis of the same instances is conducted, employing the framework concerning the “Three Modes of Translating Queer Literary Texts” proposed by Démont (2018). The instances are displayed in tables, which include the specific information about the dialogue or quote 5 (show’s name, season, episode, timecode). The micro-strategies, as defined by Pedersen (2011), and the macro-strategies, as defined by Démont (2018), are also listed, along with the back translation, the TT, and the ST. 5. LIMITATIONS As of 2024 March, RuPaul’s Drag Race, the main show, aired 16 seasons, and its spin- offs, All Stars aired 8 seasons, Untucked 16, Secret Celebrity Drag Race 2, and Holi-slay Spectacular 16 in the US. Additionally, RPDR has another spin-off named RuPaul's Drag U and several franchises in the world, such as RuPaul’s Drag Race UK, RuPaul’s Drag Race France, RuPaul’s Drag Race Italy, etc. However, it is not possible to analyse all of these shows in this study because they are not available on Netflix Türkiye with Turkish subtitles. Nevertheless, to have a broad perspective on the translations of the show, the corpus of this study consists of all seasons of RPDR and its spin-offs that were available on Netflix in 2021 when this study started: RuPaul’s Drag Race Seasons 1 to 13, All Stars Seasons 4 to 6, Untucked Seasons 11 to 13, Secret Celebrity Drag Race Season 1, and Holi-slay Spectacular Season 1, a total of 248 episodes. Additionally, the Turkish subtitles are analysed to reveal how queer terms are transferred into the TC through micro- and macro-translation strategies. Even though the constraints of subtitling are also mentioned, it is done only to demonstrate the possible impacts of the subtitling on the show’s Turkish subtitles. Therefore, it is not intended in this study to give a comprehensive list of subtitling constraints and the instances related to each of the constraints, such as time and space constraints. 6. OUTLINE OF THE STUDY The study consists of five chapters. After the Introduction section, Chapter 1 discusses the evolution of Queer Theory, the core theorists, and the main concepts with a special emphasis on the concept of performativity and the concepts of identity and discourse. The chapter includes the status of ‘queer’ in literature and media both in the world and in Türkiye, and the developments in Turkish context, with a special emphasis on the local 6 agents, such as Kaos GL Magazine, the concept of anti-language, and Lubunca. Chapter 2 explores the convergence of Queer Theory and Translation Studies, leading to the emergence of queer translation studies. The chapter focuses on the examination of micro translation strategies and macro translation strategies that are suggested for translating queer elements. This chapter also encompasses an examination of the significance of adopting an activist approach to translation, as well as the ramifications of subtitling within a queer context. Chapter 3 of the thesis introduces the methodology, which includes the ECR transfer strategies developed by Jan Pedersen (2011) and their modification to ICR transfer specifically for this thesis. Additionally, the chapter presents the three modes of translation provided by Marc Démont (2018) for translating queer literary texts. In Chapter 4, brief information is presented on the case study of this thesis, RPDR and its spin-offs, and the drag language used in the show. Afterwards, the 54 instances selected from the corpus are analysed in accordance with Pedersen’s and Démont’s strategies. In Chapter 5, a table showing the findings of this study and the graphs produced based on the findings are presented and discussed. In the Conclusion section, the research questions specified in the Introduction section are answered. This section is finalised with suggestions for further studies in the field of Translation Studies. 7 CHAPTER 1 LITERATURE REVIEW ON QUEER THEORY 1.1. EVOLUTION OF QUEER THEORY ‘Queer’ is a term whose origin cannot be clearly stated and that entered the English language around the beginning of the 16th century (Jones, 2023, para. 3). Although today we see that English dictionaries also contain the word’s meaning respectful of individuals’ affirmed gender, it has had derogative meanings as absurd, peculiar or odd in lexical terms referring to homosexual men initially and gradually including lesbian women and people of other sexual orientations. And it came to a point that “queerness has been deployed as an umbrella term for identities and embodied multiplicity (gay, lesbian, bisexual, transgender, butch-femme, cross-dressing, third gender)” (Patel, 1992, p. 138). On the other hand, ‘queer’ is defined by Halperin (1995) as “whatever is at odds with the normal, the legitimate, the dominant” and “an identity without an essence” (p. 62). It can be said that what is perceived as normal, legitimate and dominant has been heteronormativity for ages. At this point, Adrienne Rich’s explanation for ‘compulsory heterosexuality’ is of vital importance. As Adrienne Rich (1980) puts it, “heterosexuality may not be ‘a preference’ at all, but something that has had to be imposed, managed, organized, propagandized, and maintained by force” (p. 648). This explanation sheds light on the queer idea behind ‘resistance’ against heteronormativity. After all, queer appeared as “a zone of possibilities” (Edelman, 1994, p. 114). The possibilities it gives way allow individuals to create (or, in Foucauldian terms) ‘construct’ their sexual identity without any oppression. ‘Queer’ has been a challenging concept to explain for scholars from different fields. Until its being theorised as Queer Theory in 1990s, sociologists, linguists, philosophers, and many other academics of separate branches had examined its birth and evolution. To understand its complex nature and scope, one should start with the history of gay 8 liberation movement in America that “was organised primarily around gay identity and gay pride, initially it had political affinities with other sexually marginal identities like bisexuals, drag queens, transvestites and transsexuals” (Jagose, 1996, p. 40). 1969 Stonewall riots in New York City was a milestone of homosexual movement in which in fact, lesbians and drag queens also participated. The riot was a resistance to ongoing maltreatment against homosexuals; it was a matter of existence and an having an identity. Jagose (1996) states, “A gay identity was a revolutionary identity: what it sought was not social recognition but to overthrow the social institutions which marginalised and pathologised homosexuality” (p. 37). It can be said that marginalisation and pathologisation have been systemically done and are being done today with homosexuality regarded as an illness to be ‘treated’ physically through medicine and psychologically through therapies. As Jagose (1996) puts it, the discourse around homosexuality as an illness dates back to the AIDS epidemic: While responses to the AIDS epidemic—governmental, medical, scientific, activist, theoretical—cannot be held entirely responsible for generating the conditions in which queer emerged as a significant term, the urgent need to resist dominant constructions of HIV/AIDS reinforced a radical revision of contemporary lesbian and gay politics. (pp. 94-95) In this context, individuals gathered under queer umbrella started to show resistance also through activist organisations such as Queer Nation whose slogan was “We’re here and we’re queer!” (Baer and Kaindl, 2018, p. 2). Besides being a part of resistance for gay liberation, we can say that lesbian feminism also had huge impact on Queer Theory to stand as a separate and a broader theory. As a result of this impact, queer also pays attention to the specificity of gender, it is aware the fact that there is a strong institutional perspective to sexuality instead of leaving it to individuals’ choices, and it criticises compulsory heterosexuality (Jagose, 1996, p. 57). In addition, supporting the idea of Queer Theory’s being a composition of different branches, Tamsin Spargo (1999) states that it contains “poststructuralist theory, including Jacques Lacan’s psychoanalytic models of decentred, unstable identity, Jacques Derrida’s deconstruction of binary conceptual and linguistic structures, and, of course, Foucault’s 9 model of discourse, knowledge and power” (pp. 40-41). Michèle Barrett (1992) informs us about a ‘turn to culture’ in feminism as of 1980s, a paradigm shift in feminist theory. She also states the following on the subject: Academically, the social sciences have lost their purchase within feminism and the rising star lies with the arts, humanities and philosophy. Within this general shift we can see a marked interest in analysing processes of symbolization and representation — the field of ‘culture’— and attempts to develop a better understanding of subjectivity, the psyche and the self. (p. 204) The rise in gender identities started with LGBT and expanded to L.G.B.T.Q.I.A.+. today to include all can be the product of these ongoing cultural researches. Kirsch (2000) suggests that although Queer Theory is perceived as a new theory, past theoretical debate has contributed a lot to its construction (p. 17). Diane Richardson (2006) believes that lesbian/feminist theories from the 1970s, along with recent feminist scholarship, can be interpreted as ‘queer’ or at least aligned with what Queer Theory purports to offer as ‘new’ in its methodology (p. 32). Exploring varied sexual and gender identities underscores the significance of race, ethnicity, disability, and cultural context in shaping identity. The process of identity formation now prioritizes cultural realms, recognizing the pivotal role of clothing, music, and popular cultures in contested identity production (McLaughlin, Casey and Richardson, 2006, p. 8). Being one of the four core theorists in the field along with Gayle Rubin, Michel Foucault, and Judith Butler, Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick made significant contributions to Queer Theory, particularly through her exploration of queer identities and the concept of the ‘closet,’ a metaphorical space of concealment and revelation, where non-normative desires are both hidden and expressed. Jagose (1996) states that Sedgwick challenges conventional understandings of sexuality and identity, arguing that the binary oppositions of gay/straight and homosexual/heterosexual are insufficient to capture the complexities of human desire, in her ground-breaking work Epistemology of the Closet (1990) (p. 18). Jagose (1996) continues that Sedgwick delves into the intricate nuances surrounding contemporary representations of homosexuality, challenging the simplistic notion that it exists as a clear-cut and unproblematic identity. Additionally, Sedgwick illuminates the logical contradictions within prevailing views on sexuality. Instead of resolving them, her 10 aim in Epistemology of the Closet is to dissect and delineate the conflicting conceptual frameworks shaping modern perceptions of homosexuality (p. 18). Jagose (1996) emphasises that there are two fundamental contradictions that shape the contemporary discourse on homosexuality at the core of Sedgwick’s analysis. The first revolves around the delineation of the homosexual group: Is homosexuality confined to a minority subset within the broader population, or does it extend to encompass the identities of ostensibly heterosexual individuals whose desires may include same-sex attraction? The second contradiction pertains to the gendering of homosexual desire: Does same-sex desire originate from a liminal space between genders, or does it serve as a defining characteristic of gender itself? (p. 19). Accordingly, Sedgwick argues that these two contradictions coexist in a delicate balance, perpetuating the ongoing crisis in defining and understanding homosexuality in modern society. By unpacking these tensions and exploring their implications, she sheds light on the complex and multifaceted nature of contemporary sexual identities (Jagose, 1996, p. 19). The second core theorist to mention is Gayle Rubin. Richardson (2006) states that the evolution of Queer Theory is closely associated with a critical reaction to feminist perspectives on sexuality, which were seen as constrained by their focus on gender (Jagose, 1996; Sullivan, 2003). In this regard, exploring the relationship between feminist and queer theories prompts inquiries into methodological and epistemological considerations regarding the conceptualization of gender and sexuality (p. 24). It can be said that Gayle Rubin’s seminal work from the early 1980s, Thinking Sex: Notes for a Radical Theory of the Politics of Sexuality (1984), where she posits the distinction between gender and sexuality, has profoundly influenced contemporary discourse (pp. 24-25). Richardson (2006) continues that Rubin contends that while gender and sexuality are interconnected, they represent distinct spheres of social practice, and that Rubin’s critique of certain radical feminist perspectives, such as MacKinnon’s (1982) argument that sexuality inherently shapes gender, underscores the necessity of delineating between these domains (p. 25). 11 Richardson (2006) also draws attention to the point that Rubin asserts the need for a broader analytical framework beyond feminism alone to comprehensively grasp the intricacies of sexual organization in society, and argues against the presumption that feminist theory is the sole lens through which to understand sexuality, advocating for the recognition of alternative perspectives (Rubin with Butler, 1998, p. 61; p. 25). According to Rubin, feminist discourse on sexuality had become dominant by the early 1980s, potentially marginalizing other analytical approaches; however, her aim is not to undermine feminism but to foster a more inclusive dialogue that acknowledges diverse viewpoints on sexuality and gender (Richardson, 2006, p. 25). 1.1.1. Queer Identity from the Perspective of Foucault’s Concepts of Identity and Discourse Jagose (1996) states that it was not until the second half of the twentieth century that claims on identity were problematised radically by a group of intellectuals from different fields (p. 78). Michel Foucault, the third core theorist to mention, is one of the most influential theorists for Queer Theory; his concepts of ‘identity’ and ‘discourse’ are also noteworthy for my analysis in this thesis because RPDR contestants and hosts use a queer slang, a type of anti-language, to construct their identities. For this reason, these concepts starting with ‘identity’ will be explained in this section. In the first volume of The History of Sexuality, Foucault (1978) discusses the emergence of diverse sexualities, separate from traditional codes of marriage and family, and the shift in the regulation and discourse surrounding sex. He emphasizes the role of knowledge and discourse in the construction of sexual identities, suggesting that scientific, medical, and legal institutions that holds knowledge in their hands play a significant role in defining and regulating what is considered normal or deviant in terms of sexuality. Foucault (1978) expresses the increase in discourses on sexuality since the 18th century as follows: There was a steady proliferation of discourses concerned with sex-specific discourses, different from one another both by their form and by their object: a discursive ferment that gathered momentum from the eighteenth century onward. Here I am thinking not so much of the probable increase in “illicit” discourses, that 12 is, discourses of infraction that crudely named sex by way of insult or mockery of the new code of decency; the tightening up of the rules of decorum likely did produce, as a countereffect, a valorization and intensification of indecent speech. But more important was the multiplication of discourses concerning sex in the field of exercise of power itself: an institutional incitement to speak about it, and to do so more and more; a determination on the part of the agencies of power to hear it spoken about, and to cause it to speak through explicit articulation and endlessly accumulated detail. (p.18) Foucault (1978) gives example to the discourses on homosexuality, such as being a perversion in the form of sodomy (religious), legal sanctions against minor perversions (legal), sexual irregularity’s interpretation as mental illness (psychological), increase in pedagogical controls medical treatments (medical), thus creating a “the whole emphatic vocabulary of abomination” and suggests that the increase in its number could be a tactic to create “a sexuality that is economically useful and politically conservative” (pp. 36- 37). And discourse “is entirely within (yet not necessarily in the service of) the mechanisms of power” (Jagose, 1996, p. 82). As it is discussed above, Queer Theory’s main point is to deconstruct heteronormativity, more explicitly “to disrupt and denaturalise sexual and gender categories in ways that recognise the fluidity, instability and fragmentation of identities and a plurality of gendered subject positions” (Richardson, 2006, p. 22). And Foucault suggests that marginalised sexual identities are not only the victim but also the product of power actions (Jagose, 1996, p. 80), power being the dominant heteronormative perspective. He also states that “where there is power, there is resistance” (Foucault, 1978, p. 95) and the power uses ‘discourse’ that is a “series of discontinuous segments whose tactical function is neither uniform nor stable” (Foucault, 1988, p. 100) as a tool for ensuring its continuity. “Hence, a discourse is related to other discourses somehow pertaining to the subject in question as a result of hierarchical and organized power relations […]” (Smart, 2002, p. 95). It can be said that physical resistance against power brought rights to queer community; in addition, the creation of anti-languages, in other words, reverse discourses gave them the liberty of constructing their own identity. Therefore, the legal, psychological, and all other discourses on homosexuality in the 19th century constructed it in a way to be 13 regarded as perversion, thus creating a reverse discourse characterised in that it uses the same vocabulary and categories as the dominant discourse by claiming to be approved as the legitimate and the natural (Foucault, 1978, p. 101). And Barnlund (1988) states that a “universe of discourse” created by every culture functions as an experience-sharing method (p. 11). In addition, it should be stated that ‘queer’ as an identity means an endless construction in so much that “its realization remains impossible” (Edelman, 1995, p. 346). Considering RPDR and identity, it can be said that Foucault’s (1978) proposal of the self- construction of gender identity is relevant because the drag identities in RPDR and its spin-offs have been formed by the members of drag sub-culture. During the show, there has been an ideal drag model in which being a ‘fishy’ drag queen, one of its symbols is RuPaul herself, is blessed. ‘Fishy’ refers to a drag queen who look very like a woman. However, the audience of the show witnesses the conditions in which the drag queens create their own way of doing drag. Mark McCormack and Liam Wignall (2021) state that the evolution of terminology from ‘drag queen’ to simply ‘drag’ reflects a growing acknowledgment of gender diversity. However, they state that the prime era of drag is largely centred around gay men, with trans performers and drag king acts often remaining within subcultural realms. McCormack and Wignall (2021) add that this distinction is notable given that platforms like RPDR primarily feature gay male performers (p. 6). At this point, it can be stated that the popularity of the show has paved the way for subcultural drag representations, alongside the traditional ‘fishy’ representation, to be more visible over time. Eventually, the visibility and transfer of the drag language and culture, as well as drag identities, is ensured with translation. 1.1.2. Performativity Judith Butler, one of the main theorists who contributed a lot to the Queer Theory, the fourth the core theorist to mention, adds a different perspective to discussions around queerness. Adding on Foucault’s statement on sexuality’s being a discursively produced condition and broadening its scope to include gender (Spargo, 2000, p. 53), Butler redefines gender as a performative reflection of repeated acts saying that “Gender is the repeated stylization of the body, a set of repeated acts within a highly rigid regulatory 14 frame that congeal over time to produce the appearance of substance, of a natural sort of being” (Butler, 1990, p. 33). Butler approves Foucault idea that gender is “an ongoing discursive practice […] open to intervention and resignification” (Butler, 1990, p. 33). Therefore, “there is no gender identity behind the expressions of gender” because “that identity is performatively constituted by the very “expressions” that are said to be its results” (Butler, 1990, p. 25). In this respect, camp talk functions as the way of queer community’s expressing themselves and creating and strengthening their unique identities every time they perform it. In terms of performance, both on the stage related to their look, in other words, visual performance of gender, and between the community’s members related to their expressions, in other words, verbal performance of gender, as Butler also suggests in her book Bodies That Matter: On the Discursive Limits of Sex (1993), drag is as an example for gender performativity in that it satisfies “the political needs of an emergent queer movement in which the publicization of theatrical agency has become quite central” (Butler, 1993, p. 231). Butler (1990) also investigates drag’s relevance with performativity by asking these questions: Is drag the imitation of gender, or does it dramatize the signifying gestures through which gender itself is established? Does being female constitute a “natural fact” or a cultural performance, or is “naturalness” constituted through discursively constrained performative acts that produce the body through and within the categories of sex? (p. xxxi) At this point, drag as an imitation of womanhood can be thought as a ‘parody’ of the original, which is a story in which heterosexuality again features as a star creating a contradiction with the idea of resistance. However, Butler clarifies that this parody should “be of the very notion of an original” (Butler, 1990, p. 138) rather than just a copy. She asserts that drag, through its imitation of women, highlights the imitative aspect of gender and disrupts the notion of heterosexual femininity, revealing the constructed nature of gender and sexuality within a heterosexist context (Ul, 2021a, p. 14). In relation with the verbal performance of drag, it can be said that the drag language used in the RuPaul’s Drag Race is also an example of verbal performativity. The analysis of 15 translations of RPDR and its spin-offs is the case study of this thesis based on the idea that drag language, as an anti-language, is based on repetition which signifies performativity and the reflection of its nature in Turkish subtitles could be regarded as ‘translational activism’. In summary, drag performance denotes the external display of identity concerning looks, whereas drag performativity underscores the socially constructed and enacted nature of identity, emphasising how identity is formed and manifested through repeated actions, just like drag community strengthens its unity through speaking drag language. So far, the evolution of Queer Theory have been reviewed in terms of the milestones and four core theorists have been mentioned to include their prominent ideas and contributions to the field. The next section will elaborate on queer literature in the world and in Türkiye. The Turkish context also will include information on Lubunca and Kaos GL Magazine. ‘Anti-language’ will also be debated. 1.2. QUEER IN LITERATURE AND MEDIA IN THE WORLD Considering that ‘queer’ includes almost any kind of sexual identities, it is clear that its representation in literature should be as old as humanity. Stephen Carlick (2023) states that although ‘queer’ has been a part of the world’s literature since antique times, e. g. stories and books based on Greek mythology in which transformation into a woman’s body was often seen as a punishment, the impact of queerness in literature has increased in parallel with the historical developments mentioned above (“Queer stories in antiquity” section). In this respect, Carlick (2023) continues that Shakespeare’s works contained several homosexual characteristics in the Middle Ages (“The Middle Ages” section) and that Renaissance witnessed both oppression of the Church for homosexuality on the excuse that it halts the divine reproductive system and some queer works, such as Italian priest Antonio Rocco’s Alcibiades the Schoolboy, defends man to man sexual relationship (“Renaissance” section). Queer visibility increased but anti-gay laws were enacted in the Enlightenment period and the 19th century, in addition to classical works such as Oscar Wilde’s The Picture of Dorian Gray in this period (“Enlightenment and 19th Century” section). Carlick continues that while LGBTQ+ rights were recognised in some countries, 16 some others kept criminalising homosexuality; however, production on queerness not only accelerated but also became more and more explicit in the 20th century (“20th Century” section), and finally that the 21st century has become a time when queer literature has come to a point with the spread of LGBTQ+ rights and legalisation of same- sex marriage (“21st Century” section). When it comes to queer media, radio, TV, films, newspapers, and journals should be the focus. It can be said that besides novels and stories that reflected the historical conditions and authors’ points of view on the matter, journals became the voice of readers and contributed a lot to the literature through the articles they published, Büşra Ul (2021) states that ‘queer’ was first used in academics in a special edition of journal differences titled Queer Theory, Lesbian and Gay Sexualities (1991) and edited by Teresa de Lauretis (p. 17). Subsequently, the term ‘Queer Nation’ was on the cover of the gay/lesbian journal Outlook even before Queer Theory was born (Algül, 2021, p. 16). On the other hand, although TV might not be seen as the best channel to convey queer sensitivities, it is obvious that it has enabled queer representation either positive or negative way (Algül, 2021, p. 43). Because Mustafa Algül (2021) also states that queer people gained visibility with the AIDS epidemic in 1980s, which caused queer representation on TV to be associated with homosexual men (p. 55). Although this negative perspective against homosexuals continued for a long time, Ellen TV series left a huge impact on the society as the main character, Ellen Morgan, came out as a lesbian at the end of the fourth season in 1997, which was a unique moment in American TV history; however, the series was cancelled after one season of Ellen’s coming out (Reed, 2011, p. 9). Jennifer Reed (2011) also expresses that the Ellen had been a good step for TV audience in getting know about lesbians and getting rid of their homophobia (p. 24). Another example, besides many examples in this show, is famous sitcom Friends [NBC. 22 Sept. 1994–6 May 2004], in which queerness was often used mostly in the form of queer female desire and as ambiguous contents rather than bold statements (Reed, 2011, p. 2). Besides these and many more attempts on TV, Pay TV extended the scope of queer representation in 2000s (Algül, 2021, pp. 65-66), and digital platforms, such as Netflix, Amazon and Hulu made it possible for comparatively positive queer representations reach 17 to audience worldwide (Szulc, 2020, p. 3). Jack Harris (2017) writes on the ‘underrepresentation of the LGBTQ+ community’ on TV and in films and gives an example from The CW show The 100, in which Clarke, one of the main characters is queer, which is welcomed; however, Lexa, her lover falls uncomplicatedly dead in an episode that can be interpreted as queer characters both scarce and easily sacrificed in scripts (pp. 1-2). Here, it can be understood that queer TV studies has become a separate research field. Considering queer films, 1990s was fruitful times when several films were released and influenced the field. Annette Kuhn and Guy Westwell (2020a) explains one of the aim of queer film studies as “‘queering the canon’ by means of queer readings of such classic films as Das Kabinett des Dr Caligari/The Cabinet of Dr Caligari (Robert Wiene, Germany, 1919), The Wizard of Oz (Victor Fleming, US, 1939), Brief Encounter (David Lean, GB, 1945), and Strangers on a Train (Alfred Hitchcock, USA, 1951) … as well as of the performances and personae of certain stars (Bette Davis and Marlene Dietrich, for example)” (A Dictionary of Film Studies, “Queer Theory”). Algül (2021) states that academician Ruby Rich coined “New Queer Cinema” term in his article published in Sight & Sound (p. 32) in the beginning of 1990s as a result of the developments in the field (p. 49). Kuhn and Westwell (2020b) lists some early independent examples of the genre as “Tongues Untied (Marlon Riggs, US, 1989), Paris Is Burning (Jennie Livingstone, US, 1990), Edward II (Derek Jarman, UK, 1991), Young Soul Rebels (Isaac Julien, UK/France/Germany/Spain, 1991), and My Own Private Idaho (Gus Van Sant, US, 1991)” and its extension to mainstream queer films such as “The Adventures of Priscilla Queen of the Desert (Stephan Elliot, Australia/UK, 1994), Boys Don’t Cry (Kimberley Peirce, US, 1999), the work of Todd Haynes, including Far from Heaven (US, 2002) and Carol (UK/US, 2015), and Ang Lee’s highly successful queer western, Brokeback Mountain (US, 2005)” (A Dictionary of Film Studies, “New Queer Cinema”). It can be summarised that queer representation in literature and media in the world has been accelerating for decades. Next section will focus on queer in literature and media in Türkiye, paying special attention to the Kaos GL Magazine. https://www-oxfordreference-com.dartmouth.idm.oclc.org/view/10.1093/acref/9780198832096.001.0001/acref-9780198832096-e-0765 18 1.3. QUEER IN LITERATURE AND MEDIA IN TÜRKİYE Although the recent theorisation of ‘queer’ makes us think that queerness is a new phenomenon worldwide and especially in Turkish context, Ul (2021a) states that it has been seen in Turkish literature since the Ottoman Empire period; yet the first decades of the Republic of Türkiye was a dry period to monitor queer literary themes, but it ended in the end of 1970s and the beginning of 1980s (p. 2). Dror Ze’evi (2006) researches the period of 1500-1900 in the Ottoman Middle East for the sexual discourse by analysing medical and literary texts, Sufi literature, dream interpretation and erotic literature suggesting that the period did not witness a certain distinction of heterosexuality and homosexuality (p. 44). In this context, Irvin C. Schick (2014) states that Ottoman Turkish and Arabic languages did not have a term for “homosexual” (p. 1). Foucault (1978) states that it was not until the 18th and the 19th centuries that heterosexual monogamy was legitimised and became a strict norm as a result of discursive practices (p. 38). The Westernisation efforts in Tanzimat Era of the Ottoman made the Ottomans adopt a similar perspective (Duraner-Dikmen, 2022, p. 117). Galip Karabacak (2022) also states that non-heteronormative identities have long been part of Turkish cultural history, contrary to a widespread assumption that they emerged only with 20th- century globalisation and urbanisation. He adds that historical documentation reveals queer identities existed in the Ottoman Empire (p. 4), and therefore, tolerated in certain circumstances. It can be said that queer literature as understood in the West found a place in the Turkish literature late and mostly through translations at first (Duraner-Dikmen, 2022, p. 120). Ul (2021b) states that publishing houses has led this process as cultural agents by assigning translators jobs that are mostly non-fictional texts, in that, she gives the examples of LGBT Kitaplığı and Queer Düş’ün series by Sel Publishing (p. 218). LGBT Kitaplığı series introduced seven books, Queer Düş’ün series eight as of the end of 2023. It can be said that such efforts laid the foundation of production of original works by Turkish authors today. On the other hand, İlknur Akgül-Ardıç (2022) states that Mehmet Rauf’s https://www.bookinton.com/editor/ilknur-akgul-ardic/ 19 Bir Zambak Hikâyesi (1910) introduced the first open lesbian character in Turkish literature; as of 1960s LGBT characters and as of 1990s queer characters showed themselves explicitly in the literature with the normalisation of “homosexuality” theme in the literature upon publication of Fena Halde Leman (1980) by Attila İlhan (“Queer Edebiyatın Kısa Adımları” section, para. 1). Akgül-Ardıç (2022) continues by listing popular publishing houses for queer literature, namely Umami Kitap, Sel Yayıncılık, Obiçim Yayınlar, Frankeştayn Kitabevi, A7 Yayınları, NotaBene Yayınları (“Kuir (queer) Edebiyatının Gözde Yayın/Kitabevleri” section, para. 1). In addition, it can be said that core academic works, articles, and essays laying the foundation of Queer Theory, namely Gey ve Lezbiyen Yazını (2011) by Hugh Stevens, Cinsellik ve Sosyalizm (2012) by Sherry Wolf, Queer Teori: Bir Giriş (2015) by Annamarie Jagose and Cinsiyet Belası (2016) by Judith Butler, were translated into Turkish in the 2010s (Ul, 2021b, p. 180). In the Turkish context, Zülfikar Çetin (2015) states that in the 1990s, queer activism surged in Türkiye, seeking formal recognition. Relations with Western NGOs grew during this period. Gökkuşağı’92, a gay collective, was established but later dissolved as a result of financial difficulties. Former members reached out to international queer initiatives. They aimed to host a Pride March in Istanbul in 1993; however, it was not possible. In response, various queer groups united as Lambdaİstanbul (“1990’lı Yıllar section”, para. 1). Çetin (2015) continues that Lambdaİstanbul became the first initiative to claim LGBTI+ rights in 1993, and Kaos GL gay and lesbian initiative launched a journal in 1994, both of which gained a legal status in 2005 and 2006, respectively (“2000’li Yıllar” section, para. 2). Since 2015, we see that there have been increase in the number of queer associations and societies also in universities. On the other hand, Turkish artists such as Zeki Müren, classical Turkish music singer, and Seyfi Dursunoğlu, famous actor, who had made a name with a drag character Huysuz Virjin for almost 30 years on TV before his death in 2020. Currently, social media is highly popular and has provided a distinct chance for the queer community to promote their work and lifestyle. For example, a drag queen named Florence Konstantina Delight is a popular performer and also host for queer contents on Youtube. https://www.bookinton.com/editor/ilknur-akgul-ardic/ 20 Jasmin Esin Duraner-Dikmen (2022) states that the 2000s witnessed the emergence of various publications that significantly enhanced the visibility of LGBTI+ individuals and their movement within the public sphere (p. 127). In 1997, Kaos GL announced the launch of a new periodical called GACI, which focused on transgender people and female sex workers, running until the early 2000s. The first Pride Mach in Türkiye was organised in 2003, with ten-year delay after the first attempt. From 2007 to 2012, the Pembe Hayat Association published Lubunya magazine. In 2010, Kurdish LGBTI+ individuals began publishing Hevjin, the first Kurdish LGBTI+ periodical in Türkiye (Duraner-Dikmen, 2022, p. 127). Duraner-Dikmen (2022) suggests that with the rise of online sources and social media, online lifestyle magazines like GMag, Gzone, and Gaia have emerged. While primarily catering to the gay community, these online publications cover LGBTI- themed news from Hollywood, films, music bands, and horoscopes, among other topics (Duraner-Dikmen, 2022, p. 128). Following the process worldwide, Türkiye has witnessed the rise of streaming services, which allow audience choose freely what to watch and claim more from producers. Netflix, a worldwide giant in the market, started streaming in Türkiye in 2016 and local streaming service providers such as BluTV and puhutv were launched afterwards. However, political interventions may become an issue in digital platforms in Türkiye. Emma Beswick (2020) writes that the authorities blocked the filming of a Netflix series called If Only (Şimdiki Aklım Olsaydı) because it included a homosexual character demanding the removal of the gay character from the script in order to obtain filming rights (para. 2). Consequently, Netflix decided to cancel the series, explaining that the writer’s creative vision could not be fulfilled without the character. Meanwhile, If Only was produced in Spain without removing the controversy character and made available on Netflix Türkiye with Turkish subtitles. Similarly, Göksenin Abdal and Büşra Yaman (2023) discuss the publication of Alice Oseman’s the Heartstopper (Kalp Çarpıntısı), which is a queer young adult book, in Türkiye in 2020 and 2021 for which Epsilon publishing house was the first initiator of the failed publication process. However, Yabancı publishing house managed to publish it but faced hardships such as the halt of online book sales due to its allegedly obscene https://twitter.com/_EmmaBeswick 21 content (p. 7). Moreover, Abdal and Yaman (2023) state that a second wave of censorship in terms of restriction of viewers to under-18 audience was after the Heartstopper series’ broadcasting on Netflix Türkiye in April 2022 (p. 10). 1.3.1. Kaos GL Magazine Among other publications and websites supporting the LGBTI+ rights, it can be said that Kaos GL Magazine is a key actor for being the first and the longest-running magazine in the field, having started in 1994 and reached to 195 issues as of April 2024. For Turkish queer context, Kaos GL Magazine deserves special attention because its mission has been to create a platform through which LGBTI+ community can freely speak out their problems, create their agenda and discuss them as well as contributing to sexual policies in Türkiye and presenting the most important evidence of the LGBTI+ life and culture with a stance against sexual discrimination since 1994 (Kaos GL, n.d., “Dergi Tanıtım”). In addition, Kaos Q+, an annual magazine published since 2014, gathers academic studies from various fields to raise awareness about gender issues and investigate the effect of cultural, societal, economic and politic relations on individuals and groups and their lives (Kaos GL, n.d., “Kaos Q+”). Duraner-Dikmen (2022) states that several scholars have delved into the significance of Kaos GL Magazine, recognizing its status as the first and longest-standing LGBTI+ publication. It stands out as one of the initial platforms where marginalised voices could find expression. Duraner-Dikmen (2022) summarises that İdil Şahan (2012) examines Kaos GL Magazine, exploring its role in shaping LGBTI+ public spheres and its interaction with media-LGBTI+ movement dynamics. E. Sahra Öztürk (2017) places Kaos GL within the context of alternative media theories. Cihan Alan (2019) investigates how the LGBTI+ movement, which Alan terms the “homosexual movement,” developed thematically and discursively through the influence of Kaos GL Magazine (p. 86). Additionally, she mentions that Alan (2021) critically assesses the role of translations in Kaos GL Magazine, highlighting the importation of US/Euro-centric concepts of homosexuality and their impact on gay and lesbian identity construction. Emrah Eker (2020) analyses the magazine’s treatment of the intersection between religion and LGBT 22 issues. And while these studies have significantly contributed to queer politics and identity, none have specifically focused on translated texts within the framework of case studies, and only one originates from the field of Translation Studies (TS) (p. 86). This thesis further explores Duraner-Dikmen’s research, particularly in Chapter 2, as her work is relevant to the current topic. One aspect of her research is analysing the efforts made by volunteer translators, editors, and readers of Kaos GL Magazine in creating a lexicon for queer translation. In this thesis, the Kaos GL Dictionary (2020) written by Deniz Gedizlioğlu will be used as a reference document in the analysis because this dictionary has established the queer terminology in Turkish to guide EN-TR translations. Therefore, it can be said that the use of queer terms as suggested in the Kaos GL Dictionary will result in an activist translation since Kaos GL is an activist association. 1.4. ANTI-LANGUAGE Monika Piechota (2018) states that Michael Alexander Kirkwood Halliday (1978) was the first scholar to define and thoroughly research the concept of anti-language to describe “the lingua franca of an anti-society” (p. 93). Halliday (1978) states that “an anti-society is a society established within another society as a conscious alternative to it”. It acts as a form of resistance, which can appear as either passive coexistence or active hostility and potential destruction (Halliday, 1978, p. 164). According to Halliday, an anti- language is generated by an anti-society. Although details about this process and its outcomes are mostly unknown or anecdotal, it is reasonable to assume that an anti- language relates to an anti-society similarly to how a language relates to a society (Halliday, 1978, p. 164). Roger Fowler (1979) defines anti-language as a specialised argot used by marginalised groups such as thieves and prison inmates who maintain an antagonistic relationship with mainstream society. Its linguistic style is characterised by extreme and visible forms of oppositional language, embodying deviant social dialects and special vocabulary (p. 259). Fowler (1979) modifies Halliday’s notion of anti- languages to emphasize their dialectical nature and their roots in social ideologies and discusses the novels A Clockwork Orange by Anthony Burgess (1962) and Naked Lunch 23 by William S. Burroughs (1959) as examples of the concept of anti-language. In this vein, it can be said that anti-languages are distinct from slang and jargon as they are only utilised among marginalised social circles such as inmates, criminals, and queers. Anti-languages utilise the standard vocabulary and syntax of their original language in a non-normative manner. For the purpose of this thesis, drag language can also be taken as an anti-language because drag community has created a culture over time. Gary Philipsen (1993) states that speaking is one of the symbolic resources allocated and distributed in social contexts according to distinct cultural patterns (p. 21), and each community has unique cultural values regarding speaking (p. 13). For example, Simmons (2014) examines the fourth season of RPDR and reveals that there are some notions repeated through the whole season such as family and sisterhood between drag queens, thus creating a sense of loyalty (p. 641). ‘Anti-language’ as a term is relevant to this thesis for queer discourse in general and specifically the ‘drag language’ featured in RPDR is considered an anti-language. This is because drag language is the language of drag queen sub-culture. It undermines prevailing language norms and structures, particularly in relation to gender and sexuality. It also subverts the binary gender notions. Drag language generally uses neologisms and specific terminology to identify experiences and identities that may not have the recognition or acceptance of the mainstream reader. And the subversion of linguistic norms and the creation of new discourse reveals the wider goals of the queer culture to undermine societal norms and expectations around gender and sexuality. 1.4.1. Lubunca In his master’s thesis focused on Lubunca’s structure, development and the environment it had chance to bloom and survive starting from 1980s, Nicholas Kontovas (2012) defines Lubunca as “the name given to a certain type of slang used chiefly among segments of the gay male and trans female population in Türkiye” (p. 1). He states that Lubunca is mainly used in Istanbul but has gained popularity in Ankara and other cities with significant queer communities due to migration. While its usage in print and online 24 publications is growing, Lubunca’s overall usage has sharply declined over the past fifty years (Kontovas, 2012, p. 1). Today, it is primarily used among trans female sex workers in Istanbul, whereas literature from the late 20th century suggests it was also common among the gay male population. Despite being called Lubunca by speakers, the term’s origin and initial use remain unclear (Kontovas, 2012, p. 1). Kontovas (2012) notes that unfortunately many aspects of Lubunca beyond its vocabulary are not available in written materials, making it hard to study its changes over time (p. 4). He also states that his corpus related to Lubunca includes Arslan Yüzgün’s study Türkiye’de Eşcinsellik, (1986a) along with his novels Uçurum (1986b), Mavi Hüviyetli Kadınlar (1987), and Pembe Yolculuklar (1988). Also featured are Murathan Mungan’s short story CÇ (1996), Ümit Oğuztan’s novel Kraliçe Sisi (1991) and select lexemes from Turkish translations of French Queer-themed literary works: Tahsin Yücel’s 1990 translation of Raymond Queneau’s Zazie dans le métro (Zazie Metroda) and Yıldırım Türker’s 1981 translation of Jean Genet’s Haute surveillance (Gözetim Altında) (2012, p. 2). Kontovas (2012) also gives two films, namely Kutluğ Ataman’s Lola und Bilidikid, (1999) and Can Alper and Mehmet Binay’s Zenne (2011) as examples of films that provided some lexemes to him for his study, as well as the blog Lubun Dili ve Edebiyatı Kürsüsü, which debuted in the winter of 2011, the Lubunca dictionary Lubunca Sözlük, affiliated with the queer-oriented Turkish web-pedia Madi Sözlük, which went online in 2010, and Aktunç’s Büyük Argo Sözlüğü (2008) (p. 2). His study shows that the bulk of the lexemes unique to Lubunca—27 out of 85 distinct lexical roots, comprising approximately 32.94% of the analysed data—are internally derived, in other words, they stem from words already present in Standard Turkish but have undergone alterations in meaning (Kontovas, 2012, p. 5). Kontovas (2012) also notes that the primary non-Turkish source of lexemes specific to or highly favoured by Lubunca is the Romani language, according to his analysis resulting that Romani-derived lexemes make up about 30.59% of the analysed data, roughly equivalent to internally derived Turkish roots, accounting for at least 26 out of 85 distinct lexical roots (p. 6) and they are followed by French, Greek, English, Armenian, Ladino, Arabic, Italian, Bulgarian, Kurmanji, and Russian with comparatively dwindling contributions as well as 25 lexical roots with no certain origin that could have been coined by the speakers in time especially by imitating the existing ones (pp. 8-9). Additionally, Karabacak (2022) states that the rise of queer NGOs in Türkiye in the recent decades gave rise to development of Lubunca or Lubunyaca, a queer slang, that queer culture has been passed down through social exchanges and accumulated over time, transitioning into its current form primarily through oral traditions due to a lack of written history, materials, and media oppression (p. 6). In their interview with Sim Eldem (2023), Lilith Bardakçı state that the gay slang of Istanbul was first discovered in Istanbul in 1999 during studies on Romani language. Researchers spotted a Lubunca speaker because he was using many Romani words, spent time with him observing his words and listed the Romani words he used (para. 1). Giving credits to the valuable study of Kontovas (2012), Bardakçı suggest that the illegal employment of marginalised groups as sex workers historically fostered solidarity among queer individuals, resulting in the emergence of Lubunca originated in Beyoğlu and Şişli districts and whose syntax and morphology are mostly Turkish, but it is a relexicalised language where words change meanings or incorporate roots from other languages (paras. 2-3). Additionally, they claim that although it is often called slang, Lubunca lacks extensive research, and while some refer to it as gay slang, this label may exclude women. However, Lubunca’s nature does not fit the typical definition of slang, that is why it can be called an anti-language rather than slang (paras. 7-8). In the interview, Bardakçı also discuss that Lubunca labels people, reflecting a social hierarchy that is used to maintain order within its communities; however, interestingly, it reverses the social hierarchy found in the society, where those with the least power become the most powerful within Lubunca circles. For example, trans women sex workers hold the highest respect and honour. Moreover, words derived from Turkish carry entirely different meanings in Lubunca. For example, terms like ‘orospu’ (whore) and ‘kevaşe’ (slut) are used affectionately. When referring to someone as a sex worker in Lubunca, it conveys terms of endearment like ‘my love’ or ‘honey’. This approach reflects the normalisation and even appreciation of sex work within that culture (Eldem, 2023, para. 10). 26 Eldem (2023) states that Bardakçı’s statements on Lubunca resembles with the queer slang in English that became mainstream with shows like RuPaul’s Drag Race and asks whether they think such case could be possible for Lubunca in Türkiye, too. Bardakçı mentions that after Kontovas (2012), there have been two major studies on Lubunca by Raffaella Biondo (2017) and Sezgi Acar (2021), focusing on its performative aspect. On the other hand, the Lubunca speakers mostly moved to Ankara and other cities over time and variations of the language is the case now considering where you speak it, contributing to the visibility of Lubunca. Additionally, it is evident that its use in social media in which gender identity is discussed is increasing (para. 11). In this chapter, the evolution of queer theory, core theorists of queer theory, and queer literature and media in the world and Türkiye, and anti-language have been discussed. The Turkish context included Lubunca and Kaos GL Magazine. Next chapter will focus on queer theory and translation studies adding on the concepts explained here from the perspective of translation and activism. 27 CHAPTER 2 QUEER THEORY AND TRANSLATION STUDIES This chapter explores the connections between queer theory and TS, specifically examining how certain fields of study within TS have influenced queer translation studies and shaped queer translation practices. Finally, this chapter discusses the limitations of subtitling and the field of queer subtitling studies. 2.1. QUEER TRANSLATION STUDIES Even though queerness and queer theory have long been discussed in various fields of humanities, it was not until 2000s that the paths of queer theory and translation studies crossed. Baer and Kaindl (2018) also criticises TS for being late to adopt queer as theory and concepts because TS claims to be an interdisciplinary field (p. 1). In this chapter, the intersections of queer theory and translation studies are discussed through the lens of activism and translation. Maria Tymoczko (2010) suggests that activism was conceptualised in TS with the postcolonial theory that introduced a new paradigm in literary and cultural studies considering ideology and power relations (p. 15). In this respect, Shalmalee Palekar (2017) states that queer translation studies and post-colonial translation studies have a lot in common considering their activist nature and reconsiders translation practices by emphasising the viewpoints of translators working on queer texts and by exploring dynamic, queer textual strategies within postcolonial, especially Indian, texts and contexts. In this respect, she states that: A common question facing queer translators across the postcolonial/neo-colonial spectrum is the question of translating ‘global’ (read US-centric) articulations of queer identities and communities into and onto the ‘local’ subjects that concern them, without setting up simplistic binaries of foreign/native, Western/non-Western, and while also not ignoring the effects of neo-imperial and neoliberal forces. (p. 8) 28 For this reason, Palekar (2017) considers queerying translation, in her terms, as a way of contributing to the active construction of queer identity/ies across diverse cultural contexts (p. 9). Considering queer and translation intersections, William Spurlin (2014) remarks that: Queer is not simply about sexual rights in the same way that translation is not simply about seeking equivalences between one language and another, and the critical conjunction of translation studies and queer studies offers broadened opportunities for civic engagement and citizenship in a transnational world, as well as an important tool for knowledge production about sexual difference and for the decolonization of desire. (p. 307) At this point, Epstein and Gillett (2017) state that drag is a prototype for queer and draw an analogy between a ‘trans’vestite, by flawlessly turning to which drag queens reveal the irrationality of the dominant ideology, and a ‘trans’lation, the use of which can again disclose the irrationality by queering the source text up (p. 3). Epstein and Gillett (2017) provide a more detailed explanation as follows: And by insisting on being ‘trans’, it [queer translation theory] thwarts (queers) certain operations of power, builds bridges across gulfs and opens up what in postcolonial theory is a third space, a third form of language and of being in culture which enriches the target with the source and vice versa. (square brackets mine, p. 3) On the other hand, the language the queer creates in that third space should be a subject of special examination in TS because it is highly culture-bound and neologism is used often, which makes it translatability a hard task. In fact, Brian James Baer (2021) even states that ‘queer’ as a term had so much cultural connotations that it was discussed in academic conferences if its translation was possible in 2010s (p. 28). Since then, although queer translations works has increased, creation of credible and uniform terminology has not been achieved for Turkish-English. Luise von Flotow (1991) states that feminist translation is most probably a product of efforts by Quebec feminist writers to focus on and criticise ‘patriarchal language’ and they produced works “to attack, deconstruct, or simply bypass the conventional language 29 they perceived as inherently misogynist” (p. 72). Considering that queer theory criticises the heteronormative language and tries to deconstruct conventional language around any kind of sexual identities, it can be said that what feminist translators did to reach their goal was a guiding light for translators dealing with queer content. After all, feminist translation strategies aimed to dethrone patriarchy and related discourses in favour of women, though they can be used for the purposes of other minority sexual communities. However, it should be noted that it cannot be said that queer translation became a continuation of feminist translation. Richardson (2006) explains that many feminists expressed reservations about queer theory, drawing parallels to broader criticisms of postmodern theorising. One common concern was that queer theory’s deconstructionist approach to gender, along with its postmodern critique of identity, appeared to challenge established collective understandings and identities (Richardson, 2006, p. 21). Richardson (2006) suggests that these debates resemble those within feminism in the 1980s, where the deconstruction of categories like ‘woman’ and ‘man’ raised concerns about its potential negative impact on political organising (Richardson, 2006, p. 21). Consequently, the growing influence of queer theory was perceived as a threat to both lesbian/feminist theory and activism, as well as to the identities of lesbian/feminist individuals (Richardson, 2006, p. 34). Additionally, Deborah Giustini (2015) explains the aim of queer translation as practices done “in order to validate an identity position and create an interactional space for the formulation and reception of queer voices through language” (p. 18). In this respect, it can be said that feminist translations had activist characteristics to draw attention to injustice in society. Vendramin (2013) states that activist practices and products require three essential elements: (1) volunteers; (2) a cause to defend; and (3) an organisation to work under (Hernández-Hernández, 2020, p. 199). In this respect, Keith Harvey (1998) makes an important contribution to the field with his article named Translating Camp Talk: Gay Identities and Cultural Transfer, in which he examines the camp talk in French and English language through translation, which puts forward the problem of the queerness of the queer texts and how to queer translation. Harvey (1998) states that camp can be traced in French and English literature from the 30 1940s to the present as “homosexual men’s speech” (p. 295). It can be said that camp is a jargon between members of homosexual community and, later with the expansion of the community’s scope to queer, of people who consider themselves queer, thus requiring special attention of translators during translation process because camp has a lot of intertextual elements that can be considered untranslatable. Moreover, as camp can change depending on the culture and community, not only its micro (lexical) but also macro (cultural) dimension should be evaluated within this scope by the translator to reveal the true meaning of camp to be translated (Harvey, 1998, p. 296). Therefore, two characters might look as if they supported each other but the true meaning could be the opposite, which Harvey names “ambivalent solidarity”. Another crucial aspect of camp lies within the theory of politeness by Brown and Levinson (1987) suggesting the concept of “face-threatening act” that can be used in camp talk analysis because it “threatens an addressee’s negative face-wants with its on-record requests for solidarity and support” and “can often be seen to involve threats to an addressee’s positive face-wants by indicating that the speaker does not care about the addressee’s positive self- image, hence, the insults, ridicule, put-downs etc.” (Harvey, 1998, pp. 301-302). Lastly, Jack Babuscio (1993) suggests that gay camp make use of four strategies, namely irony; aestheticism; theatricality; humour (p. 20). It is clear that Harvey is a pioneer in TS to focus on how the queerness of ST is transferred to the TT; however, it can be said that the field became much more popular since then and several strategies have been put forward regarding queer translation. It can be said that Keith Harvey’s (1998) analysis of camp talk, especially within the framework of translation and queer discourse, connects with the concept of face- threatening acts as outlined by Brown and Levinson (1987). Camp talk, characterised by its use of irony, exaggeration, and parody, often subverts societal norms and expectations, posing deliberate threats to both positive face (the desire for social approval) and negative face (the desire for autonomy). By mocking and exposing the artificiality of conventional politeness, camp talk challenges mainstream norms and performs queer identities in a way that is both subversive and assertive. 31 In translation, maintaining the subversive and playful nature of camp talk involves navigating the potential face-threatening acts inherent in the SL and adapting them to the TL. This careful balance is crucial to preserving the intended effect of camp talk. Additionally, by deliberately threatening the face of dominant groups or ideologies, camp talk serves as a form of resistance against marginalisation and oppression, allowing speakers to assert their identities and challenge existing power structures. Thus, Harvey’s work highlights the strategic use of language in constructing queer identities and resisting societal norms through communicative acts that intentionally threaten social face. This is related to this study because as an anti-language, the drag language also has the aims and uses similar tactics, which makes it translation worth analysing. At this point, it should be mentioned that translation is closely related to construction of identity and multiplication of discourses because translators, as agents of this field, holds the power in their hands to assign an identity to characters, construct a whole new story in a TL and rewrite the source material in a TT. Similarly, Harvey (2000) emphasises translation’s power of creation: Translated literature occupies a special place within the space of literature for gay readers in that translated texts can suggest models of otherness that can be used in processes of internal identity formation and imagined community projection. Translations can achieve this through their subject matter itself, if this presents the reader with explicit accounts of homosexual experience and struggle. (p. 159) Van Wyke (2010) states translation-as-clothing and translator-tailor metaphors (p. 23) used to indicate that translator’s job is to add veils to the source text rather than discovering or recovering the essence that is quiet dynamic in fact (p. 43). Emily Rose (2017) introduces experimental queer translation strategies for French into English translation of Mémoires de l’abbé de Choisy habillé en femme [literally, memoirs of the abbot de Choisy dressed as a woman]. She elaborates on how the translator reflects Choisy’s shifting gender position in English through choosing appropriate gender markers and playing with feminine and masculine symbols inside words. Other strategies the translator employs are to make a difference between feminine and masculine verbs in text by highlighting them in one chapter and to remove genders and use epicene pronouns where appropriate in another chapter. This example shows why queer texts require a 32 special treatment in translation process because “Gender, whether ‘cis’ or ‘trans’, and writing, whether ‘original’ or translated, are both constructed and queer, and to experiment with them is to expose what lies underneath […]” (Rose, 2017, p. 48). Feminist theorists went to a claim of linguistic emphasis of the male/female divide drawing inspiration from Sapir-Whorf hypothesis suggests that ‘one’s native language exerts a powerful influence over one’s perception of reality’ (Livia, 2001, p. 11). Considering marginalised queer communities, language is of critical importance in that they want to create a separate identity and, moving from the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis again, the creation of a language should be one of the main actions to get rid of the binary oppression of their mother tongue and create their own reality. At this point, it can be said that they can do it in queer context through creating an ‘anti-language’. In relation to the ‘anti-language’ concept, employing non-traditional language can signify a form of resistance or what Bourdieu terms as “heretical discourse” (Bourdieu, 1991, p. 128). Roswitha Kersten-Pejanić (2019) explains that, in feminist and LGBT activism, this linguistic approach serves as a tool for raising awareness about the contested normalisation of specific gender norms by openly challenging and dismantling the prevailing linguistic conventions (p. 3). In her study, Kersten-Pejanić (2019) problematises the dominance of false generics in everyday language and interviews gender activists about their alternative language creation efforts as an activist approach (p. 6). The study reveals the interviewed activists’ strategies to overcome false gender generics, such as coining an integrating form of gendered words through the use of gender markers in reverse order, using the generic feminine, and employing slash-variant or underlined versions of the expressions to which they want to draw attention. She concludes that changing one’s language use and adopting alternative linguistic practices demonstrate active engagement in challenging the dominant gender order and promoting consciousness raising. Her study underscores the importance of linguistic practices and the avoidance of sexist denotations for feminist activism, as language plays a crucial role in categorising and structuring our social world. 33 B. J. Epstein (2017) studies the translation of queer texts, namely Dance on My Grave (1982) by Aiden Chambers and Sugar Rush (2004) by Julie Burchill, for young adults from English into Swedish and proposes two strategies translators can employ: ‘acqueering’, which increases queerness, or ‘eradicalization’, which eradicates the radical nature of queerness. Initially, she anticipates that children’s texts depicting non- heterosexuality would undergo alterations when translated from liberal to conservative cultures by impacting their interpretation. However, as discussion deepens, it is seen that this assumption does not always hold true. In this respect, inspired by feminist translation theorists, such as Luise von Flotow (1991, 1997, 2011) and Sherry Simon (1996), Epstein (2017) aims to propose strategies for queering and queerying translation. She states that strategies such as “hijacking” in feminist translation strategies can be called “acqueering” in her terms because they increase the queerness of a TT. On the other hand, removing or downplaying queer elements can be called “eradicalization” because it gives less of the queerness in ST, ending up with de-queering of the source text (Epstein, 2017, p. 121). Moving from Tymoczko’s (2000) effort to show relation between power and translation, stating that translation is eventually limited by a political act (p. 31), Mehrdad Rahimi- Moghaddam and Amanda Laugesen (2020) discuss that in contemporary Iran, well- known leftist translators perceived translation as a pivotal form of resistance against the prevailing regime. They understood translation not merely as a linguistic act, but as a profound manifestation of opposition by following Tymoczko’s (2014) description of translation as an act that “rouses, inspires, witnesses, mobilises, and incites to rebellion” (p. 213), and tried to bring change and strengthen the voice of alternative political discourses (Rahimi-Moghaddam and Laugesen, 2020, p. 189). Tymoczko (2010) suggests that translators, when mobilised, do not only import new discourses into a TC but actually “often become founders of discursivity,” (p. 231) through a range of textual and paratextual strategies. Michela Baldo (2020) states that translation, in this view, entails not just the transfer of the ST but its transformation, often leading to unforeseen trajectories and resulting in a substantially different cultural product in the TC. Furthermore, this process extends beyond mere linguistic transformation; it also influences and reshapes the target activist community (p.36). In this respect, 34 Tymoczko (2010) states the role and responsibility of translator, as an agent of ‘resistance’, in activist translation as follows: Translators must make choices, and emphasis on the translator’s choices and decision making was one of the first steps in exploring the agency of translators. Translators cannot transpose everything in a source text to the receptor language and text because of anisomorphisms of language and asymmetries of culture, because meaning in a text is both open and under determined, because a text makes contradictory demands that cannot be simultaneously satisfied (for example, the demands of complex content and spare form), and because the information load associated with and implied by a source text is excessive and overdetermined, among other reasons. Translation is therefore a metonymic process, and translators make choices, setting priorities for their translations in decision- making pro cesses that have ideological implications. (p. 8) Duraner-Dikmen (2022) mentions that activism, globally and within Türkiye, has traditionally aligned with the pursuit of social change, advocating for disempowered, oppressed, and marginalized groups, including individuals with non-normative sexualities (pp. 3-4). In her dissertation, she studies on the role of translation of non- literary texts, namely academic articles and informative texts, as queer activism in the Turkish context through examination of the activist translations made by volunteers and published in Kaos GL Magazine in 1994 and 1995 by employing Even-Zohar’s conceptualization of culture repertoire (1997) and the narrative created in Kaos Q+ magazine through interviews with translators by employing Baker’s narrative theory (2006), suggesting that these translations and the narrative created gave rise to formation of a queer terminology and a queer literature in Turkish language. She also suggests that the themes selected for translation and the local texts, such as LGBTI+ rights, activism, identity problems, history of LGBTI+ movement, current developments at global and local levels, and politics of sexuality, are the proof to challenge heteronormativity (p. 5). Duraner-Dikmen (2022) states that these translations were made by volunteer translators, and although they were unsystematic, in time the magazine became a centre of volunteer translators who want to enlighten its readers about LGBTI+ rights, health issues, experiences, news and so on (pp. 36-37). Her analysis reveals that in the early years, Kaos GL translators did not often opt for Lubunca words in translations but tended to coin new words, borrow them from SL, or do literal translations because Lubunca’s vocabulary fell short in encompassing the 35 rapidly evolving political terms, concepts, and identities emerging from LGBTI+ and queer politics in the U.S. and Europe. Additionally, the target readers were not limited to Lubunca speaking community, and the magazine’s content included academic issues as well as daily matters. (pp. 212-213). Because the activists volunteering for Kaos GL Magazine were mobilised with the aim of constructing an alternative narrative for LGBTI+ individuals, their goal was to challenge and overturn the prevailing public narrative by creating LGBTI+/queer literature in Turkish (p. 165). Readers’ letters also became decisive in the choice of themes, texts and the use of language in the early issues of the magazine (p. 214). For example, ‘queer’ was borrowed as ‘kuir’ first, but translators tried to find equivalences, such as ‘ibne’ suggesting that embracement of this word by gay and lesbians in Türkiye could challenge dominant negative narrative with American society’s embracement of queer, as ‘ibne’ gives the same derogatory meaning in Turkish (pp. 218-220). Leaving it untranslated and giving explanation were also used to make readers familiar with the word (p. 221). In time, ‘sapkınlık’ (deviance), ‘kaçıklık’ (craziness), and ‘terso’ were also suggested as translation of ‘queer’, but only borrowing option became prevalent in Turkish (pp. 224-225). Introduction of ‘come-out’ into Turkish with several explanations, footnotes, accentuated phrases by writers and activist translators, and realising that Turkish verb ‘açılmak’ gives the same meaning (pp. 229- 230) can be another example for the terminology creation efforts. Additionally, taking ‘gay’, preferred as a counter-reaction to “homosexual” in English due to the latter’s being medically pejorative, as ‘gey’ quickly without having a problem with its political background (pp. 237-239) was a decision taken through time and negotiations. Considering neologism, translation of lesbian as ‘bakışık’ that does not have any negative connotation contrary to ‘lezbiyen’ was discussed; however, ‘bakışık’ was not circulated very long time and the loan word ‘lezbiyen’ was embraced (pp. 243-247). ‘Homosexual’ was another word translated as ‘eşcinsel’ that is free of negative connotations (pp. 247- 248). On the other hand, from the perspective of performativity, B. J. Epstein and Robert Gillet (2017) emphasise the similarity of translation and queer with the following words: On a larger theoretical level, notions of translation as a performative practice, as an imitation with at best tenuous links to the idea of an original, as an indefinite deferral 36 of meaning, but also as a site of othering, hegemony and subalternity, mark it out as always already queer and as an appropriate